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Supply of relevant inspection and qualityin drilling company

 

The IADC Manufacturing Record Book Guidance document is intended to assist purchasers, suppliers, service providers and classification societies involved with drilling equipment, on the request and supply of relevant inspection and quality documentation in an organized and standard manner to facilitate the review of such documentation packages.

This document provides the recommended Table of Contents and minimum content requirements to be used when compiling a Manufacturing Record Book (MRB).

All documents within an MRB shall be in the English language unless specified differently in the applicable purchase order.

This guidance document is intended to cover all equipment new builds, repair and remanufacture events.

CHAPTER 2. DEFINITIONS / ACRONYMS

For the purposes of this document the following are the acronyms and definitions of certain terms used throughout this guidance document.

Term

Definition

ABS

A third party classification society, American Bureau of Shipping

API

American Petroleum Institute

Assembly Drawings

Drawing that list all parts and subassemblies that make the final product

Bookmark

An object used within a PDF file to create a shortcut to the documentation it is referencing.

BOP

Blowout preventer

CE

Conformity marking for certain products sold within the European Economic Area

Certifying Authority

An independent third party organization, typically a Classification Society that establishes and maintains technical standards for the construction and operation of ships and offshore structures (ships, offshore structures and the equipment contained within). The Certifying Authority will also validate that construction is according to these standards and carry out regular surveys in service to ensure compliance with the standards. (e.g. ABS, LR, DNV GL)

COC

Certificate of Compliance / Conformance -Document containing the statement by the manufacturer certifying that the equipment meets the requirements of the applicable Standards and Specifications.


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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.



DFT

Dry Film Thickness

DNV GL

A third party classification society, Det Norske Veritas

Germanischer Lloyd

D&I

Disassembly and Inspection

FAT

Factory Acceptance Test

Finished Product

Any equipment that is identified within the scope of supply that is a discrete unit or deliverable on the purchase order.

ITP

Inspection Test Plan

LR

A third party classification society, Lloyd’s Register

Manufacturing Record Book

A compilation of manufacturing records for a specific piece of equipment. Commonly referred to as MRB

MT

Magnetic Particle Testing, a form of Non-Destructive Examination

MTR

Material Test Record

NDE

Non-destructive Examination

Non Compliance Report

A non-fulfilment of a requirement or specification. Commonly referred to as NCR

OEM

Original Equipment Manufacturer

PO

Purchase Order

PT

Liquid Penetrant Testing, a form of Non-Destructive Examination

PWHT

Post Weld Heat Treat

Remanufacture

Process of disassembly, reassembly and testing of equipment, with or without the replacement of parts, in which machining, welding, heat treatment, or other manufacturing operation is employed

Repair

Process of disassembly, inspection, reassembly and testing of equipment, with or without the replacement of parts in order to correct failed or worn components.

RT

Radiographic Testing, a form of Non-Destructive Examination

UT

Ultrasonic Testing, a form of Non-Destructive Examination

Welding Procedure Specification

The formal written document describing welding procedures, which provides direction to the welder or welding operators for making sound and quality production welds as per the code requirements. Commonly referred to as WPS


CHAPTER 3. MRB CONTENTS

Every MRB shall have a Front Cover, Revision Page, Table of Contents, and a Back Cover. All of these Pages shall be bookmarked within the electronic file of the MRB. Furthermore, all Sections and Subsections described in Chapter 4 of this document shall be bookmarked. All bookmarks shall have dividers within the hard copy of the MRB, in case a hard copy is a requirement of the order.

The Front Cover shall include:

* Client Name

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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


* Rig Name or Hull Number

* OEM Name

* Equipment Description

* Part Number (s)

* Serial Number (s)

* Purchase Order Number

* MRB Document Number and revision number

Table of Contents

Section 1 – Finished Product Documentation

Section 2 – Certifying Authority Documentation

Section 3 – Traceability and Manufacturing Documentation

Section 4 – Supplementary Documentation

CHAPTER 4. MRB SECTION DETAILS

Section 1 - Finished Product Documentation

This section contains the information related to the Finished Product and should include the following subsections:

1.1 OEM Certificate of Compliance/Conformance (COC)

Certificate of Compliance / Conformance - Document containing the statement by the manufacturer certifying that the equipment meets the requirements of the applicable Standards and Specifications.

The repaired/remanufactured equipment and all its component parts meet the requirements of the original or current product definition.

Other documents such as Statement of Fact or Certificate of Service can be provided as applicable per API.

The following information is the minimum required on a COC:

* Manufacturer Name

* Manufacturer Order Number

* Owner Name (optional)

* Owner PO Number

* Rig/Hull Number (if applicable)

* Equipment Description

* Manufacturer Serial Number

* Manufacturer Part Number with revision level

* Owner’s Equipment ID Number (optional)

* Date of Manufacture (completion date)

* Applicable Standards and specifications

* Manufacturer’s Authorized Representative Signature

* COC Certificate Number, and

* Certificate Date

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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


1.2 Top Level Bill of Material and Assembly Drawings

The Top Level Bill of Material must specify to what revision the Finished Product was built or remanufactured to.

As-built Assembly Drawings shall be provided (applicable for top level assemblies such as top drives, etc.; not applicable for consumables)

For repair or remanufacture with no design changes the original Assembly Drawings should be referenced from original MRB. If a design change has been made, an updated Assembly Drawing is required for the applicable change.

1.3 Nameplate photograph

For new equipment, a photograph of the nameplate will be provided.

For repair or remanufacture both the original (when available) and the new nameplate photographs are to be provided when applicable.


Section 2 - Certifying Authority Documentation

This section covers any or all applicable Certifying Authority Documentation such as: Design Approval Letter, Survey Reports, Design Verification Report, Type Approval Certificate, Product Certificate, Endorsements, etc. This section also contains any special certification for a product such as “CE Marking.” If no Certifying Authority Documentation is required, then this section shall be left blank.

2.1 Design Approval Documents

A document verifying the product design has been assessed for use by the Certifying Authority.

2.2 Final Product Certificates

Final Product Certificates / Survey Reports that are applicable to new build, repair and remanufacture.

Section 3 – Traceability and Manufacturing Documentation

Every document in the MRB shall have the traceability information (e.g., Part Number, Serial Number, Heat Number, PO Number or Sales Order Number) on each relevant page of the document.

The Manufacturing Documentation Section content is specific to the equipment and shall follow the order of the Quality Plan/Inspection Test Plan guidelines or Quality guidelines of the facility. If notification is required of NCR during the manufacturer process it must be stated on the Purchase Order along with an outline of the notification process.

8

Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


Within all MRBs this section shall contain the manufacturing documentation by Part Number with the Top Level Assembly Part Number being the first Subsection; and the remaining Subsections being the Lower Level Assemblies and/or Components of the Top Level Assembly.

The first Subsection covering the Top Level Assembly shall contain reports for all testing performed at the top level (ITP, FAT, Load Test, and Drift test, Coating / Painting etc.) as applicable.

Remaining Subsections should cover Lower Level Assemblies and/or Components (mini-packs) and shall include the traceability record for each Subassembly and Component; as well as other manufacturing documentation such as the MTR, Traceability Sheet, Welding, NDE, Hardness, FAT and preservation as applicable for the part.

3.1 Top Level Part Description


3.1.1 Inspection Test Plan (ITP)

The following information is the minimum required on an ITP:

* Customer Name

* Rig Name

* Customer Purchase Order Number

* OEM Sales Order Number

* OEM Facility Ref

* Certification Authority/Third Party Inspection

* Equipment Part Number

* Equipment Description

* ITP Definition & Abbreviations

* Detailed Description of Critical Components, as defined by the OEM

* Detailed Description of Manufacturing Process for critical components


3.1.2 Traceability Sheet

* Equipment Part Number

* Equipment Description

* Manufacturer Serial Number or Heat/Lot Number of all Critical Components, as defined by the OEM


3.1.3 Final Assembly Test Report (as identified in ITP)

* Equipment Part Number

* Manufacturer Serial Number

* Test Record(s) as outlined in OEM Procedure(s)

* OEM Procedure(s) Used


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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.




3.1.4 Coating and Painting Report

* Equipment Part Number

* Manufacturer Serial Number

* Manufacturer of coating

* OEM Procedure(s) Used

* Dry Film Thickness (DFT)

* Atmospheric conditions

* Batch and/or Lot number of coating

* Quantity of items coated/painted


3.1.5 Preservation Report

* Equipment Part Number

* Equipment Description

* Date Preservation Began

* OEM Procedure Number

3.2 Component 1: Description


3.2.1 Component 1 Traceability Sheet


3.2.2 Component 1 Manufacturing Records as applicable (see examples below)

3.3 Component 2: Description


3.3.1 Component 2 Traceability Sheet


3.3.2 Component 2 Manufacturing Records as applicable (see examples below)

...

3.X Component Y: Description


3.X.1 Component Y Traceability Sheet


3.X.2 Component Y Manufacturing Records as applicable (see examples below)


10

Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


Examples - Manufacturing Records:

(a)

Material Test Record (MTR)

* Chemical Analysis, Tensile Mechanical Tests, Hardness Tests, Charpy Impact Values,

Heat Treatment, Material Specification Number

(b)

Welding (Original and/or Weld Repair)

* Weld Maps - Original and/or Weld Repair

? Part Number / Part Serial Number

? Welder ID

? Filler Metal Heat and /or Batch Number

? Flux Lot Number

? WPS Number and revision number

? Sketch (Weld Maps) of Part or Assembly identifying weld location

? Filler Metal Type

? Weld Inspection Records (visual, fit-up verification)

? Total Remaining PWHT Time per Weld

? Completion date of welding

? NDE and hardness report number (if not traceable and properly identified under section (d))

(c)

Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

* PWHT Chart(s) showing the entire PWHT cycle, part number, serial and/or Heat Number and/or heat treat lot number, a WPS number with revision number is required

* Sketch of local PWHT Heater size location and thermocouple(s) location.

(d)

Non-destructive Examination and Hardness Records (Original and/or Weld Repair)

* Final Surface NDE Records (PT/MT)

* Final Volumetric NDE records (RT/ UT)

* Repair Weld NDE (RT/UT/PT/MT)

* Final Hardness Test Report

* Post Load Test NDE Reports

(e)

Electrical Equipment Reports

* Insulation Resistance Measurement Test Records

* Dielectric Strength Test Records

* Test certificates as identified in ITP

(f)

Controls Equipment

* Records will be included to satisfy appropriate API requirements, Certifying Authority requirements, operator requirements and industry standards as applicable.

(g)

Pressure Vessels/Accumulators/Heat Exchangers/Lube Oil Coolers


11

Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.




?

COC and applicable industry certifications (such as U1-A Form), traceable to the cylinder’s serial number as identified in ITP.

(h)

Disassembly and Inspection Report (Applicable for Repair and Remanufacture)

* Provides detailed Scope of Work and Replacement parts to complete the work in

accordance with PO instructions, API and Class requirements as applicable.


Section 4 – Supplementary Documentation

This section covers any special / supplementary documentation such as: Hazardous Area Documentation or other as required. If the Equipment does have Hazardous Area Certificates, then this section shall contain both the Hazardous Area Equipment List, as well as the Hazardous Area Equipment Certificates. If no supplementary documentation is needed then this section shall be left blank.


12


Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


Note: The below Appendixes are for example purposes only and are solely provided to aid in further guidance of the MRB.

APPENDIX A – EXAMPLE OF MRB

Table of Content {BOP ASSY, 18-15 SRBOP}

Section


1.0

Finished Product Documentation


1.1

OEM Certificate of Compliance/Conformance (COC)


1.2

Affidavit for Country of Origin


1.3

Top Level Bill of Material and General Arrangement Drawing


1.4

Nameplate Photograph

Authority Documentation (e.g., ABS,LR,DNVGL, etc.)

Design Approval Documents

Final Product Certificates

and Manufacturing Documentation

Ram BOP Final Assembly (PN xxxxxx)

Traceability

2.0

Certifying


.

2.1



2.2


3.0




3.1



3.1.1 Inspection Test Plan


3.1.2 Traceability Sheet


3.1.3 Final Assembly Test Report


3.1.4 Coating and Painting Report


3.1.5 Preservation Report


3.2

Ram Blocks Assembly (PN xxxxxx).. - Traceability Sheet

3.2.1 Ram Block Assembly

3.2.1.1 Material Test Reports

3.2.1.2 Nondestructive Testing and Hardness Report

3.2.2 Packers







3.2.2.1 Reports


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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.




3.3

Bonnet Final Assembly (PN xxxxxx) - Traceability Sheet


3.3.1

Bonnet Body



3.3.1.1

Material Test Reports (TYPICAL)



3.3.1.2

Welding (TYPICAL)



3.3.1.3

Nondestructive Testing and Hardness Report (TYPICAL)


3.3.2

Cylinder


3.3.3

Cylinder Head


3.3.4

Piston


3.3.5

Overhauling Screw


3.3.6

Overhauling Nut


3.3.7

Front Clutch Plate


3.3.8

Rear Clutch Plate


3.3.9

Retainer Plate


3.3.10

Bonnet Hinge


3.3.11

Transfer Ring


3.3.12

Bonnet Retaining Ring


3.3.13

Bonnet Body Bolting


3.3.14

Seal Carrier


3.4

Ram Body Assembly (PN xxxxxx) – Traceability Sheet


3.5

Bonnet Bolting (PN xxxxxx) - Traceability Sheet


3.6

Fluid Hinges (PN xxxxxx) - Traceability Sheet


3.7

Flanges (PN xxxxxx) - Traceability Sheet


3.8

Seal Ring (PN xxxxxx)

4.0

Supplementary Documentation



14


Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


APPENDIX B – EXAMPLE OF ITP

Section


1.0

Order Information and Equipment Information

1.1

Order Information


1.1.1

Customer Name


1.1.2

1.1.3

1.1.4

1.1.5

Rig Name

Customer Purchase Order No.

OEM Sales Order No.

Certification Authority (Third Party Inspection)

1.2

Equipment Information


1.2.1

1.2.2

1.2.3

Equipment Part No.

Equipment Description

Codes, Standards or Specifications applied

2.0

ITP Definitions & Abbreviations (e.g.: W=Witness, H=Hold, R=Review)

2.1

Definitions

Hold Point (H)

Inspection Point (I)

Monitor Point (M)

Review Point (R)

2.2

Abbreviations

RTR: OEM Work Order/Router S/O: Sign Off By Qualified/Authorized

Representative

OEM: OEM Personnel Designated For Inspection QUAL: Qualified/Authorized OEM Representative

Activity Cited

CUS: Customer Or Their Designated Representative INSP: Qualified/Authorized OEM Inspector

CA: Certification Authority Designated In Purchase OPER: Qualified/Authorized OEM Operator

Order

RR: Required Record (Document) Per CERT LII: Certified Level II NDE Inspector

Manufacturing Process

MRB: Required Record (Document) That Will Be N/A: Not Applicable

Included In MRB

3.0

Detailed Description of Critical Components

Item

Description

   Material Specification

Level of Cert

Quality Clause Key





CAT 1

(MRB)

CAT 2

(RR)

0

Product XYZ Assembly



1.1, 1.7, 2.6

4.8

1

Product XYZ Component 1

12345678

EN 10204 3.1

2.1, 2.7

4.4

1.1

Product XYZ Component 1 Sub-Component 1

23456789

EN 10204 3.1

2.1, 2.7

4.4

2

Product XYZ Component 2

N/A

N/A

1.1, 1.13,

2.1,2.6,2.8 2.6, 2.8

4.2, 4.4


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Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


4.0

Detailed Description of Activities

ACTI

ON

NO.

ITE

M

NO.

MFG/QU

ALITY

ACTIVIT

Y

ACCEPTANCE

STANDARD

VERIFYING

DOCUMENT/VERIFYING

ACTIVITY

INSPECTION






DOC

OEM

C

U

S

T

C A






RR

MRB




10

0

Contract Review

Customer

Requirements

Purchase Order Acknowledgement



R



20

0

Sales

Order

Review

Verify Sales Order Contains Customer, Manufacturing, Inspection, and Documentation Requirements

Sales Order



R



30

0

Third Party/OEM Prefab Meeting


Inspection & Test Plan



R


H

40

0

Design Approval

Certification Authority Requirements

Certification Authority Design Approval


X

R



50

0

Engineerin g Release

Approved Drawings & Bill Of Material

Engineering Release Notice



R



60

0

Procureme nt

Materials &

Components Per Engineering Drawings

Approved Purchase Orders



R



70

0

Router Review

Verify ITP Requirements Are Defined On Process Documents

Router S/O By Quality Assurance Engineering



R



80

1

A. Rough Machin e

B. MT Inspect

C. Dimen sional Inspect

D. Weld

E. Stress Relief

A. Design Drawings

B. SOP 123456

C. SOP 234567

D. WPS 123456

E. WPS 123456

A. RTR S/O By QUAL OPER

B. RTR S/O By CERT LII

C. RTR S/O By QUAL INSP

D. RTR S/O By QUAL OPER

E. RTR, CHARTS S/O By QUAL OPER

X

X

X

X

I

I

I

I

I

H

M H



16


Rev. 1.0 Date 30 Oct 2017

Copyright © 2017, International Association of Drilling Contractors. All rights reserved.


CONSULTA LIBROS ELECTRONICOS DE ELSEVIER EN SCIENCE DIRECT


En la página principal de Science Direct puedo consultar los libros electrónicos de Elsevier por Materias en el menú Browse, que se encuentra a la izquierda de la pantalla.



Encontramos 4 grandes áreas temáticas:

* Physical Sciences and Engineering

* Life Sciences

* Health Sciences

* Social Sciences and Humanities

que, a su vez se dividen en diversas submaterias.


Desde este menú podemos entrar al área temática principal o, directamente, a cualquiera de las materias que incluye.

Nos mostrará todo el listado de publicaciones (libros y revistas; con y sin acceso al texto completo)

Ejemplo de búsqueda

En el ejemplo que sigue, hemos entrado al área de Life Sciences y al tema Agricultural and Biological Sciences

Si queremos ver sólo los libros que están a texto completo, marcamos en el menú de la izquierda


Si estamos en una disciplina concreta (en este caso Agricultural and Biological Sciences, dentro de Life Sciences), obtendremos un listado de los libros que están a texto completo en esa disciplina.


Aparecen por orden alfabético, agrupados por su letra de inicio. En este caso hay 93 títulos. Las letras del alfabeto en azul indican que hay títulos que comienzan por esa letra.


mapinfo professional 12 tutorials and manuals

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PDF Online Practical Time Series Forecasting with R: A Hands-On Guide [2nd Edition] (Practical Analytics) - Full PDF - By Galit Shmueli




Practical Time Series Forecasting with R: A Hands-On Guide, Second Edition provides an applied approach to time-series forecasting. Forecasting is an essential component of predictive analytics. The book introduces popular forecasting methods and approaches used in a variety of business applications.The book offers clear explanations, practical examples, and end-of-chapter exercises and cases. Readers will learn to use forecasting methods using the free open-source R software to develop effective forecasting solutions that extract business value from time-series data. Featuring improved organization and new material, the Second Edition also includes: Popular forecasting methods including smoothing algorithms, regression models, and neural networksA practical approach to evaluating the performance of forecasting solutionsA business-analytics exposition focused on linking time-series forecasting to business goalsGuided cases for integrating the acquired knowledge using real data* End-of-chapter problems to facilitate active learningA companion site with data sets, R code, learning resources, and instructor materials (solutions to exercises, case studies)Globally-available textbook, available in both softcover and Kindle

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HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT MANUAL

ORISSA STATE HEALTH & FAMILY WELFARE SOCIETY (OSH&FWS)

Health & Family Welfare Department, Government of Odisha

Annex Building, SHIFW, Unit-8, Bhubaneswar – 751012


Contents

1. APPOINTMENT 5

2. AGE LIMITATION 6

3. TEMPORARY APPOINTMENT 6

4. RECRUITMENT 7

4.1. INVITING APPLICATIONS 7

4.2. INTERVIEWING 7

4.3. RECRUITMENT COMMITTEE 8

4.4. SELECTION 8

4.5. DISQUALIFICATION OF APPLICANTS 8

4.6. EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT 8

5. MEDICAL CERTIFICATE AND CHARACTER CERTIFICATE 9

6. ORIENTATION 9

7. RESIGNATION 10

8. TERMINATION OF SERVICE 10

9. TRAINING AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT 11

10. MAINTENANCE OF EMPLOYEES PERSONAL FILE 11

11. JOB ABANDONMENT 11

12. OBSERVANCE OF REGULATIONS 12

13. ATTENDANCE RECORDS 13

14. HOLIDAYS 13

15. ABSENCE/ATTENDANCE 14

16. LEAVE WITH PAY 14

17. LEAVE SALARY OF DEPUTED OFFICERS 16

18. REMUNERATION: 16

19. DEDUCTION OF TAX AT SOURCE 17

20. POLICY FOR REPOSITIONING 17

21. TRAVELLING / DEARNESS ALLOWANCE (TA/DA) RULES 18

22. DA FOR TOUR INSIDE DISTRICTS 21

23. HIRING OF VEHICLE 22

24. Standards of Conduct 22

25. APPEAL AND GRIEVANCE 24

Human Resource Development Manual Page 2


26. PREVENTION OF WORK PLACE VIOLENCE 24

27. USE OF OFFICE EQUIPMENT 25

28. Use of E-mail and Internet 25


Human Resource Development Manual Page 3


Introduction

Effective Human Resource management is one of the key building blocks of Human strategy. A responsive Human Resource Management System can help ensure that staffs knows what they are supposed to do, get timely feedback, feel valued and have opportunity to learn and grow in the job.

For sustainable growth, institutional effectiveness and employee satisfaction, it is imperative to have personnel policies that are dynamic and accommodative to create conducive working environment where employees can exploit their best in conformance to the objective of the institution. The institution encourages its employees to think, express and share their concerns and views with the management to facilitate decisions and operations through collective wisdom and follows a prudent approach recognizing their contribution through recognition and rewards.

The HR policies encourages the institution’s staff to be proud of “who we are” and “what we do” within the broad framework of institutional culture, where motivation, ownership, involvement and development are the keys.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 4


1. APPOINTMENT

Appointments for the Society can be made only against vacant posts prescribed for the Society in accordance with the conditions in this regard prescribed by the Govt. of India from time to time, (such as the overall programme management costs not to exceed 6% of the total programme costs).

Recruitment would be through any of the following three routes:

* Appointments from open market: all such appointments will be on contractual basis for a fixed tenure.

* Appointments on “Deputation” basis: all such appointments will be regulated in terms of the State Government rules relating to Deputation of its officers / staff.

* Individuals recruited and paid for by an outside agency [e.g. Government of India and/or Development Partners] but posted to work within the Society Secretariat: all such persons shall be governed by the terms of employment of the organization or agency concerned. However, they shall be required to report to the Mission Director-cum-Secretary / Executive Secretary as may be decided by the Chairperson, Executive Committee.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 5


2. AGE LIMITATION

There is no mandatory working age except for that post which has limitations. However, normally an employee can be engaged up to 65 years of age. However further to the decision taken on the E.C meeting held on .... based on the GoO resolution No..., dated 19th Dec, 2007 OHS&FWS has decided that doctors up to the age of 68 years can be appointed on contractual basis as consultant physician/ consultant specialist subject to their physical fitness .

3. TEMPORARY APPOINTMENT

A temporary appointment occurs when a person is appointed to a position of short duration, intermittent in nature, or in a position where it is clearly impractical to employ on a continuing monthly salaried basis. Engagement of short term Consultant for a specific propose can be done as per delegation of administrative / financial power of the OSHFWS from among the persons having expertise in the field desired.

Individuals in positions that do not meet the definition of "fixed term employment" are not eligible for any benefits programs except where specified.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 6


4. RECRUITMENT

4.1. INVITING APPLICATIONS

The recruitment of all persons for staff positions will be coordinated by the concerned Mission Directorate. Mission Directorate’s office will monitor adherence to all organizational Policies & Procedures in inviting application from the prospective candidates.

a. Advertisements in newspapers and/or websites must be approved in the Office of Director to ensure compliance with the organization’s policies and procedures. All applications including applications for project positions must be directed to the Office of the Mission Director or as directed by the Mission Director.

b. The organization by notification may give all current employees within in the organization an opportunity to apply for the advertised position or an opportunity for promotion by in house recruitment.

c. The Mission Director’s Office will be the official recipient of all applications for employment under OSHFWS or as delegated.

4.2. INTERVIEWING

All applications will be screened by the Office of the Mission Director before being interviewed unless the position is a technical or professional position and where walk –in –interview has been proposed.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 7


a. All applications received by the Mission Director’s Office will be placed in the applicant pool if received within the established time limit. Late applications will not be accepted.

b. Screening criteria will be based on the position description provided by the post concerned and a screening committee.

c. Different test will be conducted as per the requirement of the posts.

d. Selection for interviews and interview questions shall be based on the bonafide occupational qualifications as defined in the position description.

4.3. RECRUITMENT COMMITTEE

The committee should consist of members approved by the Mission Director

cum-Vice Chairman of the Executive Committee of the society. It may vary for all the posts.

4.4. SELECTION

After interviewing the applicants, the recruitment committee will select the

best qualified applicant without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, or disability.

4.5. DISQUALIFICATION OF APPLICANTS

The organisation may reject any applicant who lacks the minimum

eligibility criteria; who has a record of dismissals, removals, or resignations; who is not in good standing as evidenced from inquiries of former employers; who has practiced deception in his/her application or for such other causes and reasons deemed sufficient by the Mission Director.

4.6. EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT

a. The director’s office will finalize the employment contract of each

employee.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 8


b. The specific conditions of employment should have a mention in the

contract and the employee will be entitled to the benefits mentioned in writing in the contract.

c. No employment contract is binding upon the organization unless signed by the Mission Director or designated authority.

d. All appointments would be temporary and would be made for the contract / deputation period as determined by the Executive Committee.

e. All contracts will be subject to review and renewal on an annual basis or as decided on case to case basis and will require post facto approval of the Executive Committee. Accordingly, proposals for review and renewal, where ever applicable, should be submitted at least one month before the expiry of existing contracts.

5. MEDICAL CERTIFICATE AND CHARACTER CERTIFICATE

(a) Before joining his duty the selected candidate in case of direct recruitment shall furnish a certificate of health fitness from a registered medical practitioner. He / She shall also furnish one character certificate from Gazetted officers.

(b) The candidate selected for direct engagement shall also provide two passport size photographs of his / her, duly attested by an Gazetted officer.

6. ORIENTATION

The Mission Director / SIHFW will conduct an orientation session for each of the new employee of the society on their duties and responsibilities.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 9


7. RESIGNATION

An employee other than an employee on deputation can at any time resign from his service by giving one month’s notice in advance. The appointing authority of the employee who resigns, can accept the resignation of the employee before the expiry of the period of one month in reasonable cases without charging any payment of compensation payable under this rule. Provided that no resignation shall be accepted unless it is certified by all concerned that no dues of the Authority are outstanding against the officer for payment to the Authority.

8. TERMINATION OF SERVICE

Termination of service of an employee under this rule as contemplated in this rule may be made for the following reasons:

a. For inefficiency, insubordination and insincerity in doing the work of the Authority

b. For any misconduct and

c. Committing irregularities and impropriety of administrative and financial nature.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 10


9. TRAINING AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Full time consultants and staff of the Society (including staff on deputation) would be encouraged to take up skill development courses and even correspondence courses which further their employment prospects, enhance their skills, and build up Society capabilities.

10. MAINTENANCE OF EMPLOYEES PERSONAL FILE

The HRD section will maintain the Personal File for each of the employees of the organisation having details of his employment application & credentials, copies of the educational & other certificates, appointment letter and/or employment contract, other service conditions, details of leave accrued & availed, performance review report, pay revisions, disciplinary action reports and every other thing having a material impact on the career of the employee. However, for the staff deployed to other Directorates or Districts a separate personal file is to be opened for maintenance of leave, PAR, QPR and other communication made from time to time at both State & the office wherever deployed. The file should be closed on resignation or termination of the employee.

11. JOB ABANDONMENT

An employee is deemed to have abandoned his/her job when for a period of 10 consecutive days has been absent without the permission of the higher authority.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 11


The employee is subject to termination and following procedures should be implemented.

a) Documentation should be provided to the Mission Director’s office:

i. Reflecting the length of unapproved leave

ii. Efforts made to contact the employee

b) The Director’s office will send a letter to the person concerned informing him/her of the imminent loss of employment and giving the person concerned a time frame in which he/she must respond.

c) If the person concerned fails to respond or responds with a reason that is unacceptable to the Mission Director, the employment may be terminated. While terminating the employee, the Mission Director will proceed as follows:

I Send a letter under certificate of posting to the employee notifying him/her of the termination.

12.OBSERVANCE OF REGULATIONS

Each staff member must observe the fixed term work schedule for his/her work location. Absence from duty must be accounted for under established leave policies on approved leave forms. Failure to properly notify, concerning an absence and to receive necessary permission may result in disciplinary action up to and including salary deduction and termination. Any individual who is consistently late for work, or who does not return from lunch periods promptly, is subject to disciplinary action up to and including termination. When it is necessary to leave work early; the staff member is to make necessary arrangements with the supervisor prior to the time of departure.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 12


13. ATTENDANCE RECORDS

Time and attendance records must be maintained at each office and project locations and each staff member should mark their attendance/ request for leave.

a) Daily attendance

Daily attendance should be maintained to record the hours and days worked and absences for each staff member either in a register or biometric system. Leaves or absence reported on Request for Leave Form should also be maintained. On arrival at office each staff member should sign either their register or login to their bio metric system.

14.HOLIDAYS

The holidays are as per State Government holidays.

a. If a holiday occurs while a staff member is on leave (in case of C.L), it will be counted as a holiday and not as leave.

b. A staff member who is on leave without pay is not eligible for pay for a holiday.

c. The Director or the designated authority may arrange work schedules to fit the project operation in order to provide efficient and economical operation.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 13


15.ABSENCE/ATTENDANCE

A staff member is expected to report to work according to the work schedule. If unable to do so, the Mission Director must be notified at the opening of the work day or as soon as possible. Failure to give proper notification of absences shall be considered sufficient cause for disciplinary action or separation from organization employment. An unauthorized absence of more than ten (10) consecutive working days may be considered job abandonment and may result in removal from service.

16. LEAVE WITH PAY

In order for a staff member to be eligible for pay when absent from work, he/she must qualify in accordance with the provisions of the appropriate policy, i.e., Casual leave, Earned Leave.

KINDS OF LEAVE

(A) Earned leave

Earned leave to the employees directly engaged on lump sum basis shall accrue at the rate of 2 1/2 days for each completed month of service. Earned Leave to the extent of 50% of the unutilized leave can be carried forward after the year end which ends on 31st December only in case of those employees who have completed two terms of contractual service under the society in the same designated post. The holidays in between leave exceeding 10 days and above shall be counted as on leave.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 14


(B) Maternity Leave

(i) Maternity leave to a female employee of the Project may be granted if she is not having more than two surviving children.

(ii) The period of maternity leave granted may extend up to 180 days, with pay for the full period. The service continuity for this period will remain uninterrupted.

(iii) In case of 180 days of absence from the duty on maternity ground, extends beyond one contract period , the same may be availed with one day technical gap subject to renewal of contract and resumption of duty by the employee on expiry of the leave period.

(iv) Maternity leave may be combined with other regular leave; however medical certificate in support of illness of self or illness of the new born baby is to be produced.

(v) The maternity leave granted shall not be debited to the leave account of the female employee.

(vi) Maternity leave benefit shall be granted to an employee if she has completed 80 days in service.

(C) PATERNITY LEAVE

(i) A male member working under OSH&FW society with less than two surviving children can avail paternity leave for a period of 15 days during the confinement of his wife for child birth, i.e upto 15 days or upto six months from the date of delivery of the child.

(ii) During such period of 15 days, he shall be paid leave salary equivalent to his remuneration drawn immediately before proceeding on leave.


Human Resource Development Manual Page 15


(iii) The paternity leave may be combined with leave of any other kind.

(iv) The paternity leave shall not be debited against the leave account.

(v) If paternity leave is not availed of within the period as specified in para (i) above, such leave shall be treated as lapsed.

(vi) In case the prescribed 15 days absence from the duty on paternity ground extends beyond one contract period , the same may be availed with one day technical gap subject to renewal of contract and resumption of duty by the employee on expiry of the leave period.

(D) CASUAL LEAVE

(i) Casual leave can be granted to an employee of the Society as per the norms.

(ii) An employee on casual leave shall be considered as on duty and his pay shall not be deducted.

(iii) Casual leave cannot be combined with any other kind of leave but can be taken in continuation of holiday or holidays.

(iv) Casual leave shall not be granted to any employee, in excess of 10 days at a time.

17.LEAVE SALARY OF DEPUTED OFFICERS

Deputation allowance, Leave salary and pension contribution is to be paid by the Society to Officers of State / Central Government on deputation to the project.

18.REMUNERATION:

* Blended payment of base salary and performance incentive to be provided instead of consolidated remuneration.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 16


   * Performance incentive to be provided as per the approved PIP. 19.DEDUCTION OF TAX AT SOURCE

* Tax will be deducted at source as per income tax rules and the Society shall register itself with the relevant authorities in this regard.

20.POLICY FOR REPOSITIONING

* Transfer case for District level Consultants engaged by State can be done on the following grounds on a case to case basis on merit:

a) Under administrative ground

b) On mutual ground

c) On spouse ground subject to availability of vacancy.

d) Critical health condition or such other grounds requiring humanitarian consideration subject to availability of vacancy.

* The case of repositioning within the district, the CDMO shall take prior approval of the collector & District Magistrate of the concerned district before implementation. The Mission Directorate shall however, be kept informed of such repositioning.

* In the case of repositioning from one district to another, the proposal along with the representation of employee and recommendation of the concerned CDMO, wherever required should be submitted to the Mission Director for consideration in all such cases except in respect of AYUSH Doctors.

* In case of AYUSH Doctors, the proposal shall be submitted to the Directorate of AYUSH, Odisha

Human Resource Development Manual Page 17


21.TRAVELLING / DEARNESS ALLOWANCE (TA/DA) RULES

Travel of Society staff (including those who are employed by the Society on deputation basis) shall be governed as per the entitlements given in the table below.

Notes: 

1. Air travel, where admissible, should be undertaken in economy class only.

2. Office vehicle or taxi, if admissible, should generally be used only where it is more economical or where direct train connection is not available. Taxi or office vehicle should generally not be used for distances greater than 200 Kms

Entitlements at State Level


Category I

State

programme

Officers and

state

Government

Officers (

Category II

State

Government

Officers ( Class

II) on deputation

to State Health

Society and full

Category –III

Other contractual

technical / clerical

staff of the State

Health Society

receiving monthly

remuneration less


Class I ) on

time contractual

than Rs 25,000/


deputation

staff/

per month or any


to state

consultants of

state government


Health

the State Health

staff ( class III and


Society and

Society receiving

IV) on deputation


state

monthly

to State Health


programmme officers

remuneration of

Rs 25,000/- per

month or more

Society

For travel

By Air

By

By 3rd A/C Rail

( Outside


Air(Economic)/2nd


State)


AC Rail



Human Resource Development Manual Page 18



For Travel

outside

state when

hotel is not

used

Rs 600/- per

day

Rs 500/- per day

Rs 400/- per day

For Travel

outside

state when

hotel is

used

Rs 3000/- per day (as per actual subject to maximum)

Rs 2500 per day

(subject to

actual)

Rs 1600 per day

(as per actual

subject to

maximum)

For travel

within the

state

By 2nd AC

Rail

3rd AC Rail

By 3 tier sleeper

For travel

within state

when hotel

is not used

Rs 450/- per

day

Rs 350/- per day

Rs 250/- per day

For travel within state when hotel is used

Rs 1500/-

per day

( As per

actual

subject to

maximum)

Rs 1200/- per

night ( As per actual subject to maximum)

Rs 900/- per night

( As per actual

subject to

maximum)

The TA/DA entitlement of class-IV employees of the OSH&FW society is however to be regulated on a case to case basis

Entitlements at District Level


Category I

Category II

Category –

Category IV


District programme Officers and state Government

State

Government

Officers (

Class II) on

deputation to

III

Class IV

contractual

staff of

State

Health &




Other

contractual

technical /

clerical staff



Human Resource Development Manual Page 19




Officers (

Class I ) on deputation

to District

Health Society

District

Health

Society and

full time

contractual staff/

consultants

of the

District Health Society receiving monthly remuneration

of Rs

12,000/- per

month or

more

of the

District

Health Society receiving monthly remuneration less than Rs 12,000/- per month or any state government

staff ( class

III and IV)

on

deputation to District Health Society

FW Society

and state

government

staff (Class

IV) on

deputation

to District

Health &

FW Society

For

travel

(

Outside State)

By Air/2nd AC

Rail

By Air

(Economic)/2nd

AC rail

Rail: Sleeper

class

Rail: Sleeper

class

For

Travel

outside

state

when

hotel is

not

used

Rs 450/- per

day

Rs 400/- per

day

Rs 350/- per

day

Rs 300/- per

day

For

Travel

outside

state

Rs 2500/-

per day (as

per actual

subject to

Rs 2000 per

day (as

per actual

subject to

Rs 1500 per

day (as per

actual subject

to maximum)

Rs 1200 per

day (as

per actual

subject to


Human Resource Development Manual Page 20



when

hotel is

used

maximum)

maximum)


maximum)

For

travel

within

the

state

By 2nd AC

Rail

3rd AC Rail

By 3 Tier

Sleeper

By 3 Tier

Sleeper

For

travel

within

state

when

hotel is

not

used

Rs 400/- per

day

Rs300/- per

day

Rs 250/- per

day

Rs 250/- per

day

For

travel

within

state

when

hotel is

used

Rs 1200/-

per day

(as per

actual

subject to

maximum)

Rs1000/- per

night

(as per actual

subject to

maximum)

Rs 800/- per

night

(as per actual

subject to

maximum)

Rs 600/- per

night

(as per

actual

subject to

maximum)


22.DA FOR TOUR INSIDE DISTRICTS

Following DA is permissible for tour within the districts for contractual staffs.

> 60% of the DA (Rs 60/-) to be paid for more than 6 hours & less than 12 hours.

> 30% of the DA (Rs 30/-) to be paid for less than 6 hours.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 21


> No DA will be paid for tour (1) exceeding 10 days (2) if the radius is within 8 K.M.

> In case where subject to actual has been mentioned the maximum limit is the rate specified therein.

Note- The Society funds can be used for payment of TA/DA only for the personnel who are drawing salaries from the District Health Society, State Health Society unless otherwise provided under specific programme included under NRHM.

23.HIRING OF VEHICLE

Approval for hiring of vehicles / taxis for supervisory visits in the district.

Note-I: Provision for hiring is only available where vehicles are not already available from the state government or from the project / programme.

Note-II: Hiring charges have to be met from the 6% management costs along with salaries, TA/DA and office expenses.

Note-III: The DAP should indicate the distribution of provision for vehicle hiring at district and sub-district level.

Note-IV: District Health Society should create a panel of accredited taxi operators though open tendering for hiring taxis. The block medical officers and other subdistrict level programme managers should be authorised to hire vehicles from this panel. Approval of the Executive Committee should be obtained before operating the Rate Contracts concluded through tendering.

24.STANDARDS OF CONDUCT

Human Resource Development Manual Page 22


OSHFWS forbids that employees have any interest in, or engage in, any business or professional activity, or incur any obligation that is in substantial conflict with the proper discharge of duties in the organization’s interest. Specifically, no employee should:

a. Accept or solicit any gift, favor, or service that might reasonably tend to influence him/ her in the discharge of his/her official duties, or that he/she knows, or should know, is being offered him/her with intent to influence his/her official conduct.

b. Accept employment or engage in any business or professional activity that he/she might reasonably expect would require or induce him/her to disclose confidential information acquired by reason of his/her official position.

c. Accept other employment or compensation which could reasonably be expected to impair his/her independence of judgment in the performance of his/her official duties.

d. Make personal investments that could reasonably be expected to

create a substantial conflict between his/her private interest and

organization’s interest.

e. Intentionally or knowingly solicit, accept, or agree to accept any benefit for having exercised his/her official powers or performed his/her official duties in favor of another.

f. Full-time employees are not allowed to be concurrently employed as a paid lobbyist for any association, organization or agency.

Failure of any employee of the organization to comply with one or more of the

Human Resource Development Manual Page 23


foregoing standards of conduct shall constitute grounds for removal from office, or termination, whichever is applicable.

25. APPEAL AND GRIEVANCE

Through Appeal and Grievance procedure, a staff member may seek relief and satisfaction from disciplinary actions imposed by the Authority. The Mission Director will afford staff members the opportunity for fair and prompt consideration of appeals and/or grievances redresses with a confidential application to the Director.

OSHFWS strives to provide an environment for its staff associates free of intimidation and harassment. The unprofessional treatment in any form is unacceptable to the OSHFWS

OSHFWS is committed to providing a work environment that encourages intellectual & performance excellence and the emotional well being of its staff and associates

26.PREVENTION OF WORK PLACE VIOLENCE

OSHFWS is committed to providing a safe environment for the well-being of all individuals. Employees have a right to work in a professional, healthy atmosphere, free from physical attack, threats, intimidation, menacing and harassing behaviors. It is the organization’s policy to ensure that employees’ communications and behaviors reflect high ethical standards. OSHFWS does not condone and expressly prohibits any acts of violence against any individual on OSHFWS premises.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 24


Employee responsibilities: It is the responsibility of all employees to maintain a work environment, free of threats or acts of violence. Each employee is expected to report threats or circumstances that have the potential for threatening workplace environment to the Director for appropriate action.

27.USE OF OFFICE EQUIPMENT

The use of organization property including telephones and office equipment such as computers, fax machines, or copiers should be restricted to official

usage. It is expected that any personal business conducted over the

telephone will be kept to a minimum. Excessive personal phone calls or use of photocopiers, computers, etc. for personal reasons may lead to restrictions or disciplinary actions.

28.USE OF E-MAIL AND INTERNET

The use of the Internet and e-mail is recognized as a valid business tool and is to be used for purposes related to the performance of a job or for gathering applicable information. Excessive use of this technology for personal use may lead to restrictions or disciplinary actions.

Human Resource Development Manual Page 25


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COMPTROLLER OF ACCOUNTS

Ministry of Finance

Government of the Republic of Trinidad Tobago


Internal Audit Manual

Prepared by the Financial Management Branch,

Treasury Division, Ministry of Finance


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . iii

1. The Internal Audit Environment

1.1 Legislative Framework – Specific to the Government of the Republic of

Trinidad and Tobago

The Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 4

1.1.2 The Exchequer and Audit Act, Chapter 69:01 6

1.1.3 The Financial Regulations to the Exchequer and Audit act ... 6

1.1.4 The Financial Instructions 1965 . 7

1.1.5 Ministry of Finance and Comptroller of Accounts Circulars . 7

1.1.6 Manual of Terms & conditions of Employment 7

1.1.7 Chief Personnel Circulars .. 8

1.1.8 Commissions and Relevant Acts 8

1.1.9 Civil Service Act Chapter 23:01 9

1.1.10 Civil Service Regulations 9

1.1.11 Civil Service (External Affairs) Regulations . 10

1.1.12 Public Service Commission Regulation, 1966 11

1.2 The Changing Environment of Internal Auditing

1.2.1 Compliance vs. Risk 12

1.2.2 Manual Environment vs. Information Technology Environment… 13

1.2.3 Independence – Location vs. Mental Attitude 14

1.2.4 Post-Auditing vs. Ongoing Audits .. 15

1.3 International Standards

1.3.1 International Best Practice

1.3.2 The Code of Ethics

1.3.3 Rules of Conduct .

1.3.4 International Auditing Standards .


1.4 The Committee of Sponsoring Organisations

1.4.1 Control Environment

1.4.2 Risk Assessment ..

1.4.3 Control Activities

1.4.4 Information and Communication

1.4.5 Monitoring

1.4.6 Criteria of Control Committee

1.4.7 Summary 


Introduction

(i) Purpose

This Internal Audit manual is designed to provide a comprehensive guidance for the development and operations of internal auditing in the Public Service. It is intended to be used as a source of reference and guidance for Internal Auditors in the daily performance of their duties. Users of this manual are assumed to possess a basic knowledge and understanding of management framework with practical guidance, tools and information for managing the Internal Audit activity and for planning, coordinating and reporting to Management / the Accounting Officer.

Against this background, this document aims to provide a standard set of guidelines regarding Internal Auditing in the Public Service.

Internal Auditors must keep pace with current trends in their profession if they are to remain effective in assisting management in the proper discharge of their duties

The Comptroller of Accounts believes that this manual will set the tone and will create the necessary impetus for a sustainable and effective Internal Auditing mechanism in Government.

(ii) Definition of Internal Auditing

The Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) (the world-wide professional organization for Internal Auditing) defines internal audit as:

‘Internal Auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control and governance processes.’

In order to assist Accounting Officers in achieving their objectives in an intelligent manner, Internal Auditors must be aware of the environment in which they operate and the rules which govern their work activities.


iii


(iii) The Objective of Internal Auditing

The overall objective of Internal Auditing is to assist the Accounting Officer in the effective discharge of his/her responsibilities by furnishing objective analyses, appraisals, recommendations and pertinent comments on the activities reviewed.

The Internal Auditor must therefore be involved in any phase of activity in which he can be of service to the Accounting Officer.

Activities include:

* appraising the soundness and application of accounting, financial and operating controls;

* ascertaining the reliability of accounting and other data developed within the organization;

* ascertaining the extent of compliance with establish policies and procedures;

* appraising the quality of performance in carrying out assigned responsibilities;

NB: Please note that this Auditing Manual is a work in progress. Inclusions will be inserted as the various sections areas developed, reviewed and verified.


Chapter 1

Internal Audit Environment

The Internal Audit Environment is shown on the flowchart at figure 1, page 2. The various components are as follows:

* Legislative Framework- specific to the Government of Trinidad and Tobago;

* Legislative Framework – International Best Practice;

* The Treasury;

* The Accounting Officer;

* Minister of Finance;

* The Auditor General Department;

* The Parliament.

The ensuing sections give details of these areas.


Figure 1 – The Internal Audit Environment

The Internal Audit Environment



1.1 Legislative Framework – Specific to the Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

Internal Auditors in the operation and execution of their duties are governed by legal provisions. These provisions are as follows:

1.1.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Ch 1:01

Chapter 8 of the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago deals with Finance and outlines the following requirements:

* The establishment of the Consolidated Fund

* The authorization of expenditure from the Consolidated Fund

* The responsibility of the Minister of Finance

* The establishment of the Office and the functions of the Auditor General

* The requirements for the appointment of the Auditor General and the setting up of the Public Accounts Committee.

Chapter 8, Section 113 (1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago states:

(1) “The Minister responsible for Finance shall cause to be prepared and laid before the House of Representatives before or not later than thirty days after the commencement of each financial year estimates of revenues and expenditure of Trinidad and Tobago for that year.”

Chapter 8, Section 116 (1-2) of the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago states:

(1) “There shall be an Auditor General for Trinidad and Tobago, whose office shall be a public office.”

and

(2) “The public accounts of Trinidad and Tobago and of all officers, courts and authorities of Trinidad and Tobago shall be audited and reported on annually by the Auditor General, and for that purpose the Auditor General or any person authorized by him in that behalf shall have access to all books, records, returns and other documents relating to those accounts.”

In order to assist the Minister of Finance in complying with these provisions, Accounting Officers are charged with the responsibility for preparing and submitting the estimates of revenue and expenditure to the Minister of Finance and the Appropriation Accounts to


3


the Auditor General. Accounting Officers have the responsibility of ensuring that proper systems of accounting as prescribed by the Treasury are establish and maintained within their respective Ministry/Department.

The Auditor General is empowered by the Constitution to carry out audits of the accounts, balance sheets and other financial statements of all enterprises that are owned or controlled by or on behalf of the State. She shall submit reports annually to the Speaker, the President of the Senate and the Minister of Finance. The Auditor General is also responsible for monitoring the systems and records used in the preparation of these accounts to ascertain whether they are functioning properly and are in compliance with the relevant laws and guidance.

Internal Auditors in Central Government are charged with the responsibility of assisting Accounting Officers in the effective discharge of their duties as defined in the Exchequer and Audit Act, Chapter 69:01. Internal Auditors must examine the records of their Ministries/Departments in order to ascertain the extent of compliance with established policies and procedures as established by the Treasury and must ensure that expenditure incurred and revenue earned conform to the Estimates of Expenditure/Revenue approved by Parliament. They must also ensure that expenditure incurred under the various votes, are made in accordance with Budgeted Allocations and that expenditure does not exceed releases granted.

1.1.2 The Exchequer and Audit Act, Chapter 69:01

In the daily performance of their duties, Officers are guided by and operate under the rules as enshrined in the Exchequer and Audit Act, Chap.69:01.

This Act provides for:

- the control and management of the public finances in the Republic of Trinidad and

Tobago;

- the duties and powers of the Auditor General;

- the collection of, issue and payment of public moneys;

- the audit of the Public Accounts and the protection and recovery of public property;

- the control of the powers of statutory bodies and for matters connected therewith.

The Act also interprets the title of the Accounting Officer in Part I Section 2 which states inter-alia:

“an accounting officer means any person appointed by the Treasury and charged with the duty of accounting for any service in respect of which moneys have been appropriated by the Constitution or by Parliament, or any person to whom issues are made from the Exchequer Account.”


4


Internal Auditors are a valuable resource for Accounting Officers and as such must be aware of the role of the Accounting Officer.

1.1.3 The Financial Regulations to the Exchequer and Audit Act, Chapter 69:01

In addition to the Exchequer and Audit Act which states and interprets the law, Internal Auditors are also guided by the Financial Regulations in their daily operations. These Regulations provide a more detailed guidance and makes provision for an independent Internal Audit Unit.

Part II Section 13 (4) of the Regulations states:

“Each Accounting Unit shall have a check staff and an independent internal audit unit”

Part II Sections 4 (1) and (3) of the Exchequer and Audit Act makes provision for the control and management of the accounts.

Part I Section 8 of the Regulations also states:

“It is the duty of an accounting officer to –

(a) ensure that the proper system of accounting as prescribed by the Treasury is

established and maintained.”

Guided by the Financial Regulations in their role and responsibilities, Internal Auditors will be able to give assurance to Accounting Officers that records are accurate, systems of internal controls are performing effectively, and there is compliance with systems laid down by the Treasury.

1.1.4 The Financial Instructions 1965

The Financial Instructions 1965 was issued by the Treasury under Section 4 of the Exchequer and Audit Ordinance 1959. These Instructions give details on accounting procedures to be adopted by the various Ministries/Departments so as to promote reliance on the accuracy of records and to ensure that systems are functioning as intended.


5


1.1.5 Ministry of Finance and Comptroller of Accounts Circulars

Circulars are issued from time to time by the Minister of Finance and the Comptroller of Accounts.

* Circulars from the Minister of Finance are issued when new accounting systems/procedures are being introduced.

* Circulars from the Comptroller of Accounts are issued for clarification/updating of existing systems and procedures.

1.1.6 Manual of the Terms & Conditions of Employment

The terms and condition of employment for officers employed in the Public Service has been compiled in a manual by the Chief Personnel Officer (CPO). Unlike the Financial Regulations which deals with accounting matters within the Public Service and the treatment of such, the Manual of the Terms and Conditions of Employment addresses the administration of rules, regulations and circular instructions relating to the terms of employment of Officers in the Public Service.

Section I of the manual embodies those rulings, guidelines, interpretations and classifications that are most frequently sought from the CPO in respect of areas such as:

- hours of work,

- treatment of work in excess of normal working hours,

- different types of leave, traveling and subsistence allowance,

- transfers between Trinidad and Tobago,

- uniform and

- employment on contract.

Each area dealt with in the Manual is referenced to the relevant regulations from the Civil Service, Public Service, CPO and Ministry of Finance Circulars.

Sections II and III of the manual contain circulars/circular memoranda mentioned in Section I. The manual must be read in conjunction with the relevant provisions of the Civil Service Regulation, Public Service Regulation or the Traveling Allowances Regulations as may be appropriate.

This manual is one of the tools used by the Internal Auditor in interpreting and clarifying issues on the terms and conditions of employment of officers employed in the Public Service.


6


1.1.7 Chief Personnel Officer Circulars

The Chief Personnel Officer issues circulars from time to time for the variation of officer’s terms and conditions of employment in relation to the terms and conditions, salaries and allowances for all officers employed in the Civil Service as well as clarification of existing circulars when necessary.

1.1.8 Commissions and Relevant Acts

Various Commissions established under the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago are as follows:

1. Public Service Commission

2. Police Service Commission

3. Teaching Service Commission

4. Judicial and Legal Service Commission

5. Statutory Authorities Commissions

These Commissions are followed by specific Acts and Regulations governing the relevant service are as follows:

-Public Service Commission:

Civil Service Act Chapter 35:50 - Civil Service

Fire Service Act Chapter 23:01 - Fire Service

Prison Service Act Chapter 13:02 - Prison Service

- Police Service Commission:

Police Service Act Chapter 15:01– Police Service

- Teaching Service Commission:

Education Act Chapter 39:01 – Teaching Service

- Judicial and Legal Service Commission:

Judicial & Legal Service Act Chapter 6:01 – Judicial and Legal Service

- Statutory Authorities Commission

Statutory Authorities Act Chapter 34:01 - Statutory Bodies


1.1.9 Civil Service Act Chapter 23:01

The Civil Service Act, Chapter 23:01 makes provision for the establishment and classification of:

- the Civil Service,

- a Personnel Department,

- procedures for negotiations and consultation between the Government and

members of the Civil Service,

- the settlement of disputes,

- other matters concerning the relationship between the Government and the Civil

Service.

The Act outlines the terms and conditions of employment of officers employed in the Civil Service.

1.1.10 Civil Service Regulations

The Civil Service Regulations guided by the Civil Service Act, Chapter 23:01 defines the various positions within the Civil Service and the details of the entitlements of these positions. The Regulations also treats with various areas such as probation periods, secondment, remuneration, increments, allowances, payment of pensions and gratuities and other matters relating to officers.

An amendment to the Regulations in 1996 made provision for the Code of Conduct. It is recommended that copies of the Regulations and Code of Conduct should be given to every officer on their first appointment by the Public Service Commission by which he was appointed together with his letter of appointment.

The Code of Conduct in the Civil Service Regulation deals with the conduct of an officer while the Public Service Commission Regulations defines the method for dealing with an officer’s discipline and the relevant disciplinary action to be taken.

1.1.11 Civil Service (External Affairs) Regulations

The Civil Service (External Affairs) Regulations established under the Civil Service Act, provides detailed requirements for Foreign Service Officers at the various Missions and the entitlements to those Officers. Areas addressed under the Regulations are as follows:

* Entry into the Foreign Service;

* Postings to and from the Missions;

* Allowances and other benefits;

* Housing accommodations;

* Leave and leave passage; and

* Conduct of officers assigned to the Missions.

8


1.1.12 Public Service Commission Regulations, 1966

The Public Service Commission Regulations defines the following:

The “Public Service” includes the Civil Service, the Fire Service, the Prison Service, and for the purposes of Section 53 of the Education Act, shall be deemed to include the Teaching Service.

An “officer” means a person employed in that part of the Public Service established respectively as the Civil Service, the Fire Service, the Prison Service, or any other service in the Public Service who is subject to the jurisdiction of the Commission and, for the purposes of Section 53 of the Education Act, shall be deemed to include all persons employed in the Teaching Service.

A “Public Office” includes the Civil Service, the Fire Service, the Prison Service, and for the purposes of Section 53 of the Education Act, shall be deemed to include the Teaching Service.

The Public Service Commission Regulations addresses the following areas within the Public Service:

1. Appointments

2. Promotions

3. Transfers

4. Staff reports

5. Resignations

6. Retirement

7. Termination of appointments

The Civil Service Regulations also deals with the recruitment of officers as well as the terms and conditions of these officers. The Public Service Regulations provides all officers and in particular the Internal Auditor with the necessary guidance and knowledge in interpreting matters listed above.

The Civil Service Act, Chapter 23:01 amended in 1966 provides for a Code of Conduct which addresses the general conduct of a Civil Servant whereas the methods for dealing with Public Officers’ discipline and disciplinary actions are covered by the Public Service Commissions Regulations.


9


The Internal Auditor in the conduct of the audit must be knowledgeable of the following laws in relation to the various bodies:

1. The Civil Service Act, Chapter 23:01

2. The Fire Service Act, Chapter 23:01

3. The Prison Service Act, Chapter:13:02

4. The Police Service Act, Chapter: 15:01

5. The Education Act, Chapter 39:01

6. The Statutory Authorities Act, Chapter 34:01

The various Acts, Regulations, Instructions and Circulars are some of the main tools used by Internal Auditors. The Internal Auditor must be knowledgeable of all aspects in order to interpret and apply them to accounting transactions, verify compliance with the relevant laws and provide advice and recommendations to his Accounting Officer.

The Internal Auditor, in assessing and reviewing the existing internal controls provides Accounting Officers with an independent assessment of the Department’s internal controls and risk management framework and policies. This promotes reliability of information provided and used in the decision-making process.

Summary to this Section- The legislative framework – specific to Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago provides guidance and assists the internal auditors in their daily function and is MANDATORY as tools to be used in all Internal Audit and Accounting Units in the Public Service.


10


1.2 The Changing Environment of Internal Auditing

The increasing demand for good governance and transparency by the citizenry in the use of taxpayer’s dollars has impacted the way in which organizations conducted their businesses in the past. In order to facilitate this demand for good governance and transparency and in keeping with Government’s mission and vision, the Public Service business processes, communication techniques, and delivery services are continuously being upgraded and transformed.

In this changing environment where the pace of Legislative Reform tends to lag behind, the Internal Auditor is met with challenges in carrying out his responsibilities. In order to cope with these challenges, the Internal Auditor must adopt relevant Standards and Tools from internationally recognized Auditing and Accounting bodies in the conduct of their audits.

In the past the focus of Internal Audit activities within the Public Service was in the areas of compliance, independence, post-auditing and auditing in a manual environment. This traditional approach has continued in audit activities in the current environment. Internal Auditors must now enhance their approach in order to fulfill their audit responsibilities in this continuously evolving environment.

1.2.1 Compliance vs Risk Management

Presently Internal Auditors are primarily concerned with checking accounting transactions (historical) for compliance with financial laws. Checks are transaction based with a financial focus in accordance with the relevant authorities and adherence to prescribed policies, procedures and systems.

While compliance to relevant authorities, policies and procedures continues to be important, the way in which compliance is currently being carried out must now change to compliance with a risk focus. The Internal Auditor must be able to assess whether the existing controls are adequate and relevant in addressing existing and potential risks which can prevent/delay the organization achieving its objective.

The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO), an internationally recognized body gives guidance on monitoring internal controls systems. COSO recognizes that risk changes over time and as such internal control systems need to be reassessed for relevance and must address new risks as they emerge.

Ongoing assessment is recommended through the monitoring and evaluation of the organization’s internal control system and should be able to ascertain whether:

- management needs to reconsider the design of the existing controls when risk changes and

- the controls which were designed to reduce risk at an acceptable level, continues to

operate effectively.


11


With ongoing assessments and the efficient and effective management of risks through strong internal controls, the organization is able to have:

- more efficient , reliable and cost effective delivery of services to it’s customers;

- more reliable decisions;

- innovation;

- minimal waste and fraud;

- better value for money through the efficient use of resources;

- improved project and programme management – better outputs and outcomes.

Once risks are mitigated, the organization’s performance will improve and the likelihood of its strategic and current objectives being achieved will increase.

1.2.2 Manual Environment vs. Information Technology Environment

Internal Auditors have traditionally operated in a paper based environment within the Public Service. Checks for completeness, accuracy and verification of accounting transactions are carried out against the relevant hard copy documents. A manual system provides an audit trail which allows the Auditor to trace a transaction from its source to its completion. While manual processing has its advantages it often operates at a slower pace and is prone to a higher degree of errors.

Government, in improving its business processes with the aim of promoting the efficiency and timeliness of its service delivery to its customers is engaged in ongoing development and implementation of Information Technology (IT) related systems within the Public Service. Internal Auditors must now be able to identify and assess the controls in this computerized environment. Auditing software is now available for use by Internal Auditors in the form of Computer Assisted Auditing Techniques (CAAT). With CAAT tools, an auditor can review, test and analyze an entire population of data. Some areas of testing include testing in compliance with standards, identifying control issues, verification of balances etc.

With the continuous development in new IT systems and the upgrading of existing ones, business processes are constantly evolving with IT driven processes. Several accounting and reporting processes within the Public Service are undergoing changes due to the incorporation of either partially or wholly IT applications into its processes.

With the introduction and varying complexity of computerized systems, there exists a corresponding loss of audit trail. The Internal Auditor must now tailor his audit activities in order to give assurance on the integrity, accuracy, validity, timeliness and completeness of outputs derived from such systems. He must assess the controls for adequacy and relevance which will mitigate any risk which may prevent or delay the organization’s ability in meeting its objectives.


12


Some areas of risk in an IT environment that the Internal Auditors must consider in relation to internal controls are:

- Data input

- Controls that are no longer relevant

- Hardware failure

- Threats /viruses

- System failure

- Fraud – human factor

- Resource management – efficient use of

COBiT, Control Objectives for Information and related Technology, is a framework which addresses IT governance and gives guidance to management, IT professionals and auditors on strategy and tactics that can best contribute to the achievement of the organization’s objectives

A methodology consisting of recognized and accepted standards and controls which is able to assist IT professionals in implementation, reviewing, administrating and monitoring various IT processes of the organization is available using COBiT. It is a tool that can be used to assist them in linking Information Technology and control practices and addresses the needs of IT governance and the integrity of information and information systems.

COBiT can be used by the Internal Auditor to:

- establish and review control baselines and standards:

- facilitate and creates performance metrics for risk assessments

- develop audit plan

- facilitate the audit

- manage residual risk

- issue control advisory and recommendations to IT groups.

While there is currently no legislation on auditing in an IT environment in the Public Service, the Treasury advises that the principles with respect to COBiT be incorporated into the design of their audit work programme. In this regard, the Internal Auditor must consult with the Treasury Division for guidance on these matters.

1.2.3 Independence - Location vs. Mental Attitude

It is usual for Internal Audit Units within Ministries/Departments to be set up separately from the Accounting Units for which most of its audit activities are carried out. This was seen to promote the independence of the Internal Auditor. While independence is encouraged by separate location, the need for independence must shift to one where it is more a state of mind. In an era of new accountability and control there is a need for greater transparency and accountability in the use of public funds.


13


The Internal Auditor, in meeting his responsibilities must conduct the audit in line with the organization objectives for transparency and accountability. This will require the Internal Auditor to develop a sound working relationship with management and relevant staff at all levels. The internal auditor’s knowledge and understanding of the organization will assist in building effective relationships and in evaluating and improving the effectiveness of risk management, internal controls and governance processes. Also, an effective and well run audit team will be sought out for services, information and guidance.

The Internal Auditor must analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the organization’s internal controls, considering its governance, organizational culture, and related threats and opportunities for improvement which can affect whether the organization is able to achieve its goals.

Internal Auditors may be called upon to advice on controls necessary in the development of new systems for the organization and may also be involved in the auditing of those systems for efficiency and effectiveness of the controls in place. In order to maintain independence in these circumstances, Audit Committees within the Organizations can be set up to review the Audit Report of the Internal Auditor.

Independence and objectivity continues to be required of the Internal Auditor in the performance of his duties. He must have an unbiased mental attitude in the performance of his engagements in such a manner that the quality and integrity of his work is not compromised in any way.

1.2.4 Post-Auditing vs. Ongoing Audits

The work viewed by the Internal Auditor has been primarily historical in nature. Upon completion of the transaction process, the Internal Auditor verifies the various accounting transactions for compliance, accuracy and completeness. Errors and irregularities are often discovered at this stage. With the emphasis on good governance and transparency this continued approach to auditing will not mitigate impending risks. Risk-based auditing allows the Internal Auditor to continuously assess new and emerging risk and to review existing policies and procedures in order to strengthen where necessary. Reports from ongoing audits may recommend new controls, where needed, in order to safeguard and use the resources of the organization in an efficient manner, add value to and improve its operations.


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4 / 4



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Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments

QualityManual,orequivalent

withdocumentaton,Management

practices.goodtoDIcommitment

Policies to include a code of ethics and proper conduct to assure the reliability and completeness of data.

WHO Technical Report Series No. 996, 2016, Annex 5 - Section 5. Quality risk management to ensure good data integrity



Policies to include mechanisms for staff to report quality and compliance concerns to Management.



Influence

of

company

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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



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Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments


Record and data integrity risks should be assessed, mitigated, communicated, and reviewed throughout the data life cycle.




Personnel should be trained in data integrity policies and agree to abide by them. Management ensures that personnel are trained to understand and distinguish between proper and improper conduct, and are aware of potential consequences.

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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



gyg/InteritaAuditintChecklistaGuideD

SystemsLaboratory





Audit

Subject

Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments

ManagementInformationLaboratory

y() temsSISsML

In most instances, the LIMS provides oversight management of all Lab operations. This may include:

* analytical methods repository

* sample management

* worksheet generation

* review and retention of analytical results

* final data evaluation and approval

* In some cases, LIMS is linked to inventory management systems to indicate when material can be released for distribution




System must be validated to demonstrate that it functions as required.

* Audit Trails active for all data

* Users are identified and assigned appropriate system authorities (Analyst should not have the same authority as Data Reviewers)

* Lab worksheets are sufficiently indexed to allow traceability

* Analytical results are second person reviewed following upload or data entry





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Laboratory Systems






If LIMS is used for Sample Management, the following should be verified:

* Samples identified to allow traceability through Lab operations

* Sample storage requirements

* Analyst assignments to perform specific tests

* Analytical test completion and transfer to sample retention

* All transactions should be Date/Time stamped along with individual performing the data entry




Generation of a Certificate of Analysis (COA) must include the following:

* Sample identification

* Analytical Test identification

* Acceptable Specifications (this may be a range)

* Actual Analytical Results

* Pass / Fail Determination

* Date, Time, and Signature of the appropriate individual with authority to approve analytical results

* Signature event must be a “wet” signature or an electronic signature (compliant with Part 11)








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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Laboratory Systems






In most instances, chromatography instruments will be networked through chromatography data software (CDS) such as the Empower 3 system provided by the Waters Corporation.

* Determine the data transfer sequence from analytical instruments to the CDS.

* Ensure that the full record, including metadata, is captured to prevent any lost data.

* Specifically, evaluate the ability to change the record during these sequences (which should not be possible) and the presence of an Audit Trail to capture any changes.




The same evaluation should be completed for subsequent records transfer from the CDS to a LIMS network (if applicable).




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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Laboratory Systems






Check common places for written evidence of shared passwords:

* Under keyboard

* Behind monitor

* Desk drawers

* Contents of trashcans

* PostrIt notes in various locations




Request the System Administrator to assist with review of data folders and files on the system.

* Look for sequential capture of data files; aborted runs (with explanation), sequential files with same name (or slightly different names)

* Look for separate folders not with the formal data records; check for data files hidden with these folders

* Verify Date and Time on data files

* Verify that data files align with instrument use logs

* Check the contents of the Trash Can







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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Laboratory Systems






Printouts from these instruments are sometimes provided as “raw data;” however, paper printouts do not meet Data Integrity requirements because they are not the original raw data. Scan data is captured digitally and is, therefore, dynamic in nature and susceptible to changes. In addition, paper printouts cannot capture the metadata from the associated file.

When the primary records are printouts from these systems, request a review of documents from various instruments, i.e., an FTIR and a spectrophotometer.

* Determine if the associated data is static or dynamic in nature

* Determine when and how the relevant data was relegated to a static record

* Verify that the record is Date and Time stamped, with the individual identified that performed the analysis

* Determine if “metadata” added/written to the printout is sufficient to allow a full history of the activities completed





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Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Laboratory Systems






Another concern with Stand Alone instruments is the limited data storage capability generally found with these systems.

* Verify that complete data records are routinely transferred to more permanent storage to prevent loss of data files

* The completed transfer of data record must include the deletion of files on the instrument to prevent any further changes to files after data has been backed up




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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



gyg/InteritaAuditintChecklistaGuideD

Quality

Culture


Audit

Subject

Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments

QualitytoconsiderforDIElements

Culture

* Control the issuance of blank paper templates for data recording and reconcile at conclusion of activity.

* Ensure controlled forms for recording GxP data are located where activity is taking place; limit need for ah-hoc recording and transcription.

WHO Technical Report Series No. 996, 2016, Annex 5 - Section 4. Principles



* Restrict the ability to change clocks used to record timed events.




* Restrict user rights to automated systems; specifically, to prevent data changes and ensure audit trails are turned on and cannot be turned off by users.




* Ensure proximity of printers to sites of relevant activities, and ensure that automated data capture (printers) are connected to equipment, i.e., balances, pH meters.

* Ensure controls are in place to ensure records recorded via temperature-sensitive or photosensitive inks/paper (e.g., thermal paper) are not subject to data loss.




performing datareviewactivities.

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Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Quality Culture


Established process for Quality Manager to communicate DI metrics to Senior Management.

* Tracking and trending of invalid or incorrect data.

* Results of audit trail reviews, specifically those reviewed as part of a key decision-making step.

* Results of routine audits and self-inspections of computerized systems.

* Monitoring of contracted or outsourced entities; tracking and trending of associated quality metrics for these sites.

WHO Technical Report Series No. 996, 2016, Annex 5 - Section 6. Governance and Quality Audits


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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Quality Culture


Particular focus should be given to outsourced database and software providers, including cloudrbased service providers.

* Service providers must ensure that personnel are appropriately qualified and trained in Data Integrity controls and practices.

* Service provider’s activities must be monitored on a regular basis (via routine audits), at intervals determined through a risk assessment of the data and record criticality.



Assessoversightofsubcontractorsand

* Audit outsourced provider to determine internal controls over suppliers and subcontractors; select examples to assess from formal listing of authorized subcontractors working for the outsourced provider.

* DI control strategies should be included in quality agreements, contracts, and/or technical documents.

* Outsourced provider should have access to supplier's or subcontractor’s relevant data and electronic records, including audit trails, reports, and other paper or electronic records.

suppliers forOutsourcedProviders.



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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Quality Culture


Audit Trail Reviews

Changes to critical data should be reviewed with each record before final approval. Items reviewed would include change history of finished product test results; changes to sample run sequences; changes to sample identification; changes to critical process parameters.

FDA Guidance for Industry – Data Integrity and Compliance With cGMP – DRAFT – April 2016


AuditresponsibleforPersonnelTrail

eviewsR

Personnel responsible for record review under cGMP should review audit trails that capture changes to critical data. For example; production control records, and audit trails, must be reviewed and approved by the Quality Unit.




If data is a static record, i.e., printout from pH meter or balance, this may be acceptable. Most other data from lab instruments are dynamic, i.e., may be reprocessed, which is not acceptable as complete record.

paperprintouts.Acceptabilityof



Original laboratory records must be subject to second person review to ensure all test results are appropriately reported.




chromatographyofReprocessing

procedurestoapprovedhaveMustfollowfor

reprocessing;allreprocessed results mustbe

retained;complete recordsdata,includerawwould

records.

graphs,charts,and spectrafrom Lab instruments.




schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



gyg/InteritaAuditintChecklistaGuideD

SystemsControlManufacturing





Audit

Subject

Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments

ERP

Systems

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems generally provide oversight of manufacturing needs, to include procurement activities, testing and release of incoming supplies, batch record controls, materials management, and final product review and approval for market distribution.




The same system configurations, as noted for other systems, will need to be implemented:

* Unique user accounts, with individual passwords; routine revision of passwords

* User account system authorities and functions allowed for each authority

* Audit Trails are on and cannot be turned off

* System Date and Time clock aligns with local operations

* System data records and files must be subject to routine backup and archive operations





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems






Verify system functions for oversight of procurement activities and materials management:

* Materials are procured from only approved suppliers

* Determine system functions for receipt (including unique tracking numbers), sampling, testing and approval of incoming materials

* Evaluate how material status is controlled throughout the entire manufacturing sequence, including material on hold (not yet released, or under investigation) or rejected (not meeting requirements)

* Review the process for generating a manufacturing “ticket”, with particular attention to the structure of the Bill of Materials (BOM)

* Determine how system is updated as materials are consumed in the manufacturing process




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system





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems






The overall objective is the ability to recreate the sequence of events during the manufacture, approval, and distribution of finished product. Ensure that the data records and files include the appropriate date and time stamps, and the identification of the user completing the various functions.








There may be instances where the materials receipt and storage functions are conducted by a warehouse management system outside of an ERP system. The following DI items should be evaluated during an audit:

* Materials are received against a purchase order from an approved supplier

* Each individual receipt of material is assigned a unique tracking number (Lot Number)

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ots l

processesproduction through



schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems









Building Automation Systems (BAS); monitoring and alarm for environmental conditions

The primary function of these systems is the monitoring, recording, and control of room temperature and/or humidity conditions. The scope of such “systems” range from simple chart recorders, to highly sophisticated networked systems of monitors and recording devices. The validated monitoring and recording of BAS data (environmental conditions) is highly significant with respect to classified rooms/space, i.e., Sterile Operations areas.




The initial inquiry for such systems should be a completed mapping study of the space being evaluated.

* The primary focus of mapping studies is to determine the “worst-case” locations of monitoring probes within the room environment, i.e. worst-case locations for high bay warehouses are generally in the upper storage racks.

* For regions with significant seasonal variations, a warm weather study and a cold weather study should be completed.





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems






The following items should be verified when evaluating a mapping study:

* Mapping study conducted via formally approved protocol.

* Protocol details number and location of study probes, and time period for collecting study data.

* Study probes have been calibrated pre- and post-study period.

* Evaluate study conclusions; number and location (if study probes are sufficient); data is complete from each probe for the date and time duration detailed by the protocol; data analysis has determined worst case locations for monitoring and control of the area studied.

* Verify operational probes have been placed at worst case locations and data collection is appropriate (i.e., continuous vs. periodic logging of data) for each area.





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems






Evaluate data management practices for environmental monitoring:

* Chart recorders have the name, date, and time the chart was set up; and the name, date, and time the chart was removed from the recorder.

* Log in to BAS program must include the use of unique user accounts and passwords.

* An audit trail must be in place to provide the name, date, and time stamp for any activity completed on the system.

* Data records must include the location, date, and time data was recorded.

* Data analysis, and subsequent reports, should be validated.







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(Networked orStandAlone)

productionMostequipmentisoperatedthrougha

provided interface automatedanby human?machine

controller.Equipment can operate asastand?alone

system, controller,the directed being by functions with

ornetworkedintoa highly sophisticated Distributed

providing (DCS) SystemControl operationalcontrolof

generally process.manufacturing entireA an will DCS

provide operationalcontrol of themanufacturing

process according to an approved Batch Record,

generating specified manufacturing data,and collecting

processing.completed a record atthe end of batch




schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Manufacturing Control Systems






Evaluate a system for the following:

* The use of unique user accounts and passwords.

* Audit Trail is functional and cannot be turned off by the user; Audit Trail identifies the user, date/time stamp, and function being performed by the user.

* System should be configured to provide sequence control of the manufacturing process.

* System should be configured to require signature and date/time stamp for each identified “critical” process step (i.e., material charging is generally a critical step and would need to be initialed and date/time stamped before proceeding to charging the next material).

* Process data must be backed up in a sufficient manner and time period to ensure that data will not be lost. This is particularly important for standralone controllers that may have limited storage space for data recording.





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



gyg/InteritaAuditintChecklistaGuideD

Quality&SystemsEnterprise





Audit

Subject

Description / Inquiries

Regulatory Reference

Auditor Observations / Comments

TrainingManagement

Systems

Training systems are utilized to provide documented evidence that employees have been properly trained for their job function within the organization.

* Job descriptions detailing each position's functions

and training requirements.




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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Enterprise & Quality Systems






Data integrity needs include the following:

* Access to documents for revision and/or generation must be restricted to appropriate individuals, i.e. Author, Reviewer, Approvers.

* Documents, and formal procedures, must be readily available to organization personnel, at their respective work spaces.

* Distribution or availability of revised documents must be controlled to ensure that previous versions are not being used by personnel.

* Outdated versions should be archived for a determined retention period.







Data

Storage

Systems

Data storage systems are intended to prevent the loss of data and allow for the rercreation of events, manufacturing process activity, etc., at a future time or inquiry.




Data and record storage systems must be subject to routine backup activity to ensure that any data loss can be recovered in a timely manner.




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schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com



Data Integrity Auditing Checklist / Guide

Enterprise & Quality Systems






Data should be archived periodically in accordance with written procedures.

* Archive copies should be physically secured in a separate and remote location from where back up data are stored.

* The data should be accessible and readable and its integrity maintained (including metadata) for the entire period of archiving (record retention period).

* There must be a procedure in place for restoring archived data in the event of an investigation. This procedure should be regularly tested.




Storage media must be evaluated to ensure that the media is not eroding over a period of time. Tape and disk storage systems can erode and will need to have appropriate refresh periods established to cover any retention periods required.





schlabach@rdsgxpconsulting.com


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

Manual

Part A Fähigkeiten (Item 1-12)

(* Physio)1

1. Mobilität (Gehen und sich fort bewegen)

Mobilität: Probleme beim Gehen oder sich bewegen, inklusive Gleichgewichtsproblemen, wenn diese die Mobilität beeinträchtigen. Dieses Item bezieht sich auf Schwierigkeiten, sich von einem zu einem anderen Platz zu bewegen, entweder beim Gehen (mit und ohne Unterstützung), oder beim Fortbewegen mit Hilfsmitteln, inklusive Rollstuhl.

0 = keine Probleme beim Umherbewegen, unabhängige Mobilität ohne Unterstützung oder Hilfsmittel

1 = Probleme bei der Mobilität treten bei der Untersuchung auf, sie interferieren aber nicht mit den normalen Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens inklusive Treppe steigen oder mit hoher Geschwindigkeit gehen, falls dies notwendig ist. Diese Aktivitäten können möglicherweise mit Hilfsmitteln (aber ohne Rollstuhl) bewältigt werden. Z.B können Personen, die eine Stütze oder Schiene benutzen, mit 1 gewertet werden, wenn sie in der Lage sind, alle normalen Aktivitäten zu bewältigen, die für Mobilität benötigt werden - inklusive Treppe steigen oder sich mit großer Geschwindigkeit zu bewegen, etwa um unerwarteten Verkehr aus zu weichen. Personen, die mit 1 gewertet werden, können auch milde Gangabweichungen in der klinischen Untersuchung zeigen, vorausgesetzt, dass sie nicht mit der oben genannten Sorte von Aktivitäten interferieren.

2 = Gangabweichungen oder andere Mobilitätseinschränkungen, die Einige aber nicht die Mehrheit (weniger als 25% ) der Zeit auftreten. Beispiele für diese Ebene von Problemen sind Personen, die einen Rollstuhl benutzen, die aber in der Lage sind, alle normalen Aktivitäten außer Treppe steigen zu bewältigen oder gehfähige Personen, die sich nicht immer schnell bewegen können, wenn das notwendig ist oder die in der Bewältigung anderer Mobilitätsaspekte beeinträchtigt sind wie z.B. Schwierigkeiten bei unebenem Terrain. Wenn diese Probleme selten auftreten (z.B. weniger als 5 % der Zeit), wird die Person mit 1 bewertet.

3 = Mobilitätseinschränkungen treten die meiste Zeit (25-50 %) auf, beschränken viele Aktivitäten und machen Einige unmöglich. Beispiele für dieses Level von Schwierigkeiten sind Personen, die einen Rollstuhl benutzen und eine beträchtliche Anzahl von „normalen“ Aktivitäten meiden müssen, weil sie Schwierigkeiten haben, den Rollstuhl unabhängig zu bedienen, oder Unterstützung beim Umgang mit dem Rollstuhl die überwiegende Zeit benötigen, aber in der Lage sind, kurze Strecken selbständig zu meistern. Diese Ebene von Problemen umfasst zusätzlich Personen, die in der Lage sind, in vertrauter Umgebung ohne Unterstützung zu gehen, die aber eingeschränkt sind in vielen Aktivitäten, die selbständiges freies Gehen und Bewegen über erhebliche Strecken erfordern.

4 = Unterstützung ist die meiste Zeit notwendig, um sich von einem Ort zu einem anderen Ort fort zu bewegen. Beispiele sind Personen, die in der Lage sind, nur sehr kurze Strecken selbständig zu gehen, ans Bett gefesselt sind oder Unterstützung in mehr als 75% der Zeit benötigen, um sich mit einem Rollstuhl fort zu bewegen.

(* Ergo)

2. Handgebrauch

Handgebrauch: Beeinträchtigte Kraft oder Koordination einer oder beider Hände.

1 * Die Einteilung in einzelne Fachbereiche ist in der Originalversion nicht vorgesehen, sie kann aber praktikabel sein, wenn einzelne Fachdisziplinen die Items alleine oder z.B. vor der Bewertung im Team einschätzen wollen.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

0 = Normale Kraft und Koordination sowohl in der klinischen Untersuchung, als auch in Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben in beiden Händen.

1= Probleme mit Geschicklichkeit oder Geschwindigkeit in einer Hand oder beiden Händen tauchen in der klinischen Untersuchung auf. Aber diese Probleme interferieren nicht grundlegend mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben. Es ist möglich, aber unwahrscheinlich, dass einigen Menschen auf dieser Ebene, der komplette oder substantielle Gebrauch einer Hand fehlt, unter der Vorraussetzung, dass Ihre Adaptation keine externe Unterstützung benötigt.

2 = Einschränkungen treten manchmal, aber nicht die meiste Zeit auf. Beispiele sind Menschen, die Unterstützung in einigen Aktivitäten wie Essen schneiden benötigen oder die aufgrund der Funktionsstörung der Oberen Extremität nicht in der Lage sind, an einigen wenigen Aktivitäten wie z. B. ein Ball (-Fang-) Spiel teil zu nehmen.

3 = Einschränkungen treten die meiste Zeit auf. Typischerweise brauchen die Personen auf dieser Ebene Unterstützung in vielen Aspekten der instrumentalen Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben. Beispiele für diese Ebene der Bewertung sind Menschen, die in der Lage sind, sich selbständig oder weitgehend selbständig an zu ziehen, aber Hilfe brauchen bei den meisten anderen Aktivitäten, die feinmotorische Geschicklichkeit verlangen , wie Schreiben, Mahlzeiten zu bereiten oder eine Tür öffnen.

4 = Unterstützung wird benötigt bei allen oder den meisten Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben aufgrund der Schädigung der Oberen Extremität. Typischerweise sind Personen auf dieser Ebene nicht in der Lage, sich ohne Hilfe an zu ziehen. Viele Aktivitäten die den Gebrauch der Hände voraussetzen wie Schreiben, Besteck zum Essen benutzen, können nicht oder nur mit extremen Schwierigkeiten bewältigt werden.

(* Team)

3. Sehen

Sehen: Probleme beim Sehen; Doppelbilder; Gesichtsfelddefizite; andere Auge-, Gehirn- o. Nervenverletzung die mit dem Sehen interferieren. Visuelle Störungen, die eher auf Wahrnehmungsstörungen, als auf Beeinträchtigung des Primär-Visuellen Systems beruhen, sollten unter 12. beurteilt werden. Visueller Neglect z.B. sollte unter 12 bewertet werden, wenn kein Gesichtsfeldausfall o. periphere visuelle Störung vorliegt.

0 = Normale Kurz- und Weitsichtigkeit bei Benutzung von korrigierenden Linsen, vorausgesetzt, dass die Linsen nicht durch den Unfall notwendig wurden.

1 = Normale Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben werden bewerkstelligt trotz milder visueller Störungen. Menschen mit leichtem oder intermittierendem Doppelt- oder Verschwommen-Sehen. Ein anderes Beispiel ist ein Mensch mit Sehverlust eines Auges, der mit Kompensationstechniken alle Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben inklusive Autofahren zu lässt.

2 = Visuelle Störungen interferieren mit vielen, aber nicht mit der Mehrzahl der spezifischen Aktivitäten. Beispiele auf dieser leichten Ebene von Beeinträchtigung sind Menschen, die aufgrund der visuellen Störung nicht Auto fahren können oder an Sport- oder Freizeitaktivitäten teilnehmen können.

3 = Unterstützung ist bei vielen Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben notwendig. Z. B. bei Menschen, die Schwierigkeiten haben zu lesen oder für die es notwendig ist, dass ihnen Informationen vorgelesen werden oder die Schwierigkeiten haben Gesichter zu erkennen oder die nicht an Sport- oder Freizeitaktivitäten teilnehmen können.

4 = Visuelle Störungen interferieren mit allen oder fast allen Aktivitäten. Typisch auf dieser Ebene sind Menschen, die nach juristischer Beurteilung / (amtlicher) Beglaubigung blind sind und Unterstützung für die meisten Aktivitäten benötigen, die Sehen oder Gesichter erkennen voraussetzen. Die Personen, die sich an ihre Sehbehinderung angepasst haben, können mit einem niedrigerem Grad (1, 2, 3) bewertet werden - in Abhängigkeit vom Ausmaß wie die Sehbeeinträchtigung die Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben behindert, wie Auto fahren.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

4. Hören

H6ren: Probleme beim H6ren, Klingeln in den Ohren, dass mit dem H6ren oder anderen Aktivitäten interferiert.

0 = Die Person zeigt normales H6rverm6gen in der klinischen Untersuchung und zeigt keine Beeinträchtigung beim H6ren im täglichen Leben.

1 =Beeinträchtigung beim H6ren tritt in der klinischen Untersuchung auf, aber interferiert nicht im tägl. Leben. Beispiele sind Menschen, die mit einem H6rgerät normal h6ren oder die einen leichten Tinnitus haben, der nicht mit Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben interferiert.

2 = Beeinträchtigung beim H6ren treten nur gelegentlich und nicht die meiste Zeit auf. Beispiele für diese Ebene von Beeinträchtigung sind Menschen, die in der Unterhaltung gelegentlich Wiederholungen ben6tigen, weil das H6ren beeinträchtigt ist, oder die einige Aktivitäten oder Situationen aufgrund der H6rprobleme meiden.

3 =Beeinträchtigung beim H6ren treten die meiste Zeit auf. Ein Beispiel für diese Ebene ist eine Person, die aufgrund der H6rprobleme an einer Unterhaltung nur mit großen Schwierigkeiten teil nimmt und häufige Wiederholungen in alltäglichen Kommunikationssituationen ben6tigt.

4 =Verlust des H6rens st6rt alle oder fast alle Aktivitäten. Menschen auf dieser Ebene sind typischerweise nach juristischer Beurteilung / (amtlicher) Beglaubigung taub und ben6tigen den Gebrauch von Sprach-Schrift-Übersetzungsgeräten oder das Schreiben für die Kommunikation. Gesetzlich als taub beurteilte / nach (amtlicher) Beglaubigung taube Personen, die sich mit Kompensationstechniken angepasst haben, k6nnen mit einem niedrigerem Grad (1, 2, 3) bewertet werden, in Abhängigkeit vom Ausmaß wie die H6rbeeinträchtigung die Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben behindert.

(* Physio)

5. Schwindel

Schwindel: Gefühl des Schwankens und des Schwindels

0 = Keine Symptome oder Beschwerden.

1 =Milde Symptome, die aber nicht mit Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens interferieren oder aber effektiv durch die Einnahme von Medikamenten beseitigt werden k6nnen.

2 = Schwindel interferiert mit einigen , aber nicht mit der Mehrheit der Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens und schließt berufliche Aktivitäten, wie Arbeiten in der H6he, aus.

3 = Schwindel interferiert mit vielen Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens, schließt aus / verhindert mehr als Teilzeit-Arbeit und führt zu signifikanten Sicherheitsbedenken, insbesondere bei Aktivitäten wie Auto fahren.

4 = Schwindel beeinträchtigt vollständig und interferiert mit den bzw. verhindert die meisten Aktivitäten während des gesamten Tages. In extremen Fällen ist die Bewegung aus einer liegenden Position ohne Symptome von Schwindel nicht m6glich.

(* Sprachtherapie)

6. Sprechen

Motorische Sprache / Sprechen: Abnormale Deutlichkeit (Artikulation, Phonation) oder Sprachgeschwindigkeit, Dysarthrie oder Sprechapraxie. Aphasie oder Beeinträchtigung im Sprachaufbau / Kommunikation (englisches Original: pragmatics of communication) sollten unter Item 7 bewertet werden.

0 = Normale Kommunikation mit keinem Hinwies auf Sprachbeeinträchtigung in der klinischen Untersuchung.

1 =Eine Beeinträchtigung erscheint während der klinischen Untersuchung, aber taucht selten im täglichen Leben auf; z. B. bei Menschen, die intermittierend Stottern oder undeutlich reden in

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

einem solchen Ausmaß, das nicht schwerwiegend mit den meisten Situationen der Kommunikation interferiert. Ein anderes Beispiel wäre eine Person, die mit Benutzung eines

„Vocalizers“ / Stimm-Sprech-Gerätes normale Sprechgeschwindigkeit erreicht.

2 = Sprachstörungen interferieren mit einigen , aber nicht mit der Mehrheit der Kommunikationssituationen . z.B. wenn der Kommunikationspartner aufgrund von Stottern oder undeutlichem Reden Wiederholung erbittet, aber nicht mehr als 25 % der Zeit. Eine stumme Person die sich mit alternativen Kommunikationshilfen angepasst hat, kann mit Level 2 bewertet werden, aber nicht mit 1 weil die Verwendung solcher Hilfsmittel, die zwischenmenschliche Kommunikation verlangsamt.

3 = Sprachstörungen resultieren die meiste Zeit in häufigen Bitten des Zuhörers um Wiederholung oder Benutzung alternativer Hilfen, wie Schreiben oder Benutzen eines Kommunikationsapparates (englisches Original: communication board), um eine effektive Kommunikation zu gewährleisten. Vorstellbar auf dieser Ebene sind Menschen, die komplett stumm sind, die aber in der Lage sind die Kommunikation fort zu setzen mit Kommunikationshilfen wie Wörter-Brett oder elektronisches Kommunikationssystem (englisches Original: word board oder electronic communication system). Eine stumme Person die sich mit alternativen Kommunikationshilfen angepasst hat, kann mit Level 2 bewertet werden, aber nicht mit 1 weil die Verwendung solcher Hilfsmittel, die zwischenmenschliche Kommunikation verlangsamt.

4 =Stummheit oder schwere Aphasie.

Auf dieser Ebene sind Personen von alternativen Kommunikationshilfen in einem Ausmaß abhängig, dass zwischenmenschliche Kommunikation mfihsam und ineffektiv in mehr als 75% der Zeit ist.

7 A (Verbale) Kommunikation, Sprechen, Benennen, Schreiben

Verbale Kommunikation: Probleme, Gedanken durch Sprache aus zu drficken oder solches von anderen Personen zu verstehen, Aphasie.

0 = Normale verbale Kommunikationsfähigkeiten, wie Reden, Schreiben, Zuhören.

1 = Milde Beeinträchtigung z.B. beim Wort finden oder Benennen, die nicht signifikant mit Konversation oder funktioneller Kommunikation interferiert.

2 = Milde Defizite im Sprachgebrauch, die mit der funktionellen Kommunikation interferieren, aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit. Beispiele sind Menschen, die aphasisch in der formalen Evaluation / Untersuchung sind, deren Kommunikationsfähigkeit aber funktionell ausreichend für die konventionelle Kommunikation ist. Aphasie erscheint nur, wenn die Kommunikation komplexer wird. Personen, deren Sprachbeeinträchtigung sich auf das Schreiben und Benennen beschränkt.

3 = Milde bis moderate Aphasie, welche die meiste Zeit mit zwischenmenschlicher Kommunikation interferiert. Beispiele ffir diese Ebene sind Personen, die nicht in der Lage sind, sich effektiv ohne signifikante Hilfe der anderen, an der Konversation beteiligten.

4 = Moderate bis starke Aphasie, welche die meiste Zeit oder die gesamte Zeit mit zwischenmenschlicher Kommunikation interferiert. Menschen auf diesem Level von Beeinträchtigung sind gewöhnlich in der Lage; nur fiber basale Bedfirfnisse zu kommunizieren und können auch mit Unterstützung nicht an einem Dialog teilnehmen.

7 B (Nonverbale und Verbale) Kommunikation, Mimik, Gestik, Sprachinhalte

Nonverbale Kommunikation: Probleme Gedanken durch Gesten, Gesichtsausdrficke oder anderes nichtsprachliches Verhalten aus zu drficken oder dieses von anderen zu verstehen;

Defizite in der Kommunikation (englisches Original: pragmatics of communication) z.B. Tangentialität oder andere die Organisation der sprachlichen und nichtsprachlichen Kommunikation betreffende Probleme, Themenwechsel, Weitschweifigkeit oder Redearmut oder

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (Mfinchen)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

andere Modulationsmängel in der verbalen und nonverbalen Kommunikation, dürftiges Zuhören ohne rezeptive Aphasie, z.B. aufgrund von Ablenkbarkeit oder Impulsivität.

0 = Normale kommunikative Fähigkeiten.

1 = Milde, üblicherweise in der Sprache auftretende Beeinträchtigung (z.B. Wortfindung oder Benennen), die nicht signifikant mit Konversation and funktioneller Kommunikation interferiert, Fehlen oder Reduktion der Mimik.

2 = Milde Defizite in der Kommunikation interferieren mit funktioneller Kommunikation, aber nicht in der Mehrheit der Zeit. Symptome wie limitierte Gestik, Ablenkbarkeit milde Tangentialität und Weitschweifigkeit, die keine Barrieren in den meisten Kommunikationssituationen bilden, aber auffällig in anspruchsvolleren Kommunikationssituationen sind.

3 = Defizite in der Kommunikation während der meisten Zeit zwischenmenschlicher Kommunikation. Menschen auf diesem Level der Beeinträchtigung sind nicht - ohne signifikante Unterstützung von Anderen an dem Gespräch beteiligten Personen- in der Lage, effektiv an einer Unterhaltung teil zu nehmen.

4 = Sehr starke Beeinträchtigung der Kommunikation interferiert mit allen oder fast allen Kommunikationssituationen. Auf dieser Ebene sind kommunikative Fähigkeiten so beeinträchtigt oder häufig so unangemessen, dass fast durchgängig Unterstützung von Anderen in jeder Unterhaltung über einen sehr kurzen und einfachen Austausch hinaus notwendig ist.

Anmerkung: Die Überschriften in der englischen Originalversion lauten 7A Verbale und 7B Nonverbale Communication – Da die Beschreibung der Scores bei 7B nicht nur nonverbale Elemente enthält wurden die Überschriften verändert. 7A bezieht sich in dieser deutschsprachigen Version auf einfache sprachliche Äußerungen, die z.B. durch eine Aphasie behindert sein können; 7B bezieht sich auf einen größeren sprachlichen Rahmen und bezieht nichtsprachliche Kommunikationsmittel wie Mimik und Gestik ein.

(* Neuropsychologie)

8. Aufmerksamkeit / Konzentration

Aufmerksamkeit/ Konzentration: Probleme, Ablenkungen zu ignorieren; Schwierigkeit, die Aufmerksamkeit von einer auf die andere Sache zu verlagern; Schwierigkeit, Aufmerksamkeit zu halten. Wenn Gedächtnisstörungen dokumentiert sind, die sich primär auf Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite zurück führen lassen, wird das entsprechende Level von Aufmerksamkeitsstörungen kodiert und Item 9 (Gedächtnis) mit 1 bewertet. Ohne neuropsychologische Testung ist es schwierig, zwischen Gedächtnisstörungen, die sich auf Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite zurückführen lassen und (im Gegensatz dazu) primären Gedächtnisstörungen zu unterscheiden. Aufmerksamkeit wird als vorrangiges Problem verzeichnet, wenn die Person die meisten Gedächtnisprobleme damit beschreibt, dass sie nicht in der Lage sei, bestimmte Informationen zu einer bestimmten Zeit ab zu rufen, aber in der Lage zu sein scheint, sich an diese an anderer Zeit zu erinnern, z.B. wenn der Name einer Person oder eine Verabredung vergessen, aber später ohne zusätzliche Hilfe erinnert wird.

0= Normale Aufmerksamkeit und Konzentration in funktionellen Situationen und in der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik (falls sie vorliegt).

1 = Schwankende Aufmerksamkeitsleistungen und Ablenkbarkeit erscheinen in der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik, der klinischen Untersuchung und in der Befragung oder werden als Beschwerde genannt, aber sie interferieren nicht mehr als minimal (< 5% der Zeit) mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben - inklusive der Kommunikation. In einigen Fällen lässt sich die fehlende Interferenz mit Beeinträchtigungen in Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens auf die Implementierung von Kompensationsstrategien, externe Unterstützung, oder reduzierte

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

Anforderungen aus der Umwelt zurückführen oder auf Aufmerksamkeitsleistungen, die sich durch Medikamente im Normbereich bewegen.

2 = Schwankende Aufmerksamkeit und Ablenkbarkeit interferieren mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben in einigen Fällen, aber nicht in der Mehrheit der Zeit. Auf diesem Level kommt es nur bei hohen Anforderungen wie die Unterhaltung in einer Gruppe oder bei einer Aktivität, für die Daueraufmerksamkeit notwendig ist zu Störungen. Auf dieser Ebene führen Aufmerksamkeitsprobleme zur Restriktion von Aktivitäten besonders von erzieherischen / pädagogischen, beruflichen Aktivitäten oder Auto fahren. Allerdings sind diese Probleme, mit einer Reduktion der Anforderungen an die Aufmerksamkeit aus der Umwelt, eher eine Belastung und stellen kein ernstes Problem dar.

3 = Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite interferieren in den meisten Situationen. Empfehlungen für Umweltveränderungen, Kompensationen oder Medikamente werden dementsprechend berücksichtigt. Auf dieser Ebene sind Personen nicht in der Lage eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt (englisches Original: community-based employment) zu behalten. Die Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite sind so stark, dass sie zu kritischen oder gefährlichen Situationen führen und einige Aktivitäten behindern bei denen Daueraufmerksamkeit für die Sicherheit notwendig ist, wie Auto fahren oder mit Strom betriebenen Geräten hantieren.

4 = Aufmerksamkeitsdefizite interferieren mit nahezu allen Aktivitäten. Personen auf dieser Ebene erscheinen die meiste Zeit unaufmerksam und benötigen häufige Refokussierung in Dialogen und meisten Aktivitäten. Personen auf dieser Ebene können nicht sicher Auto fahren, strombetriebene Geräte bedienen und brauchen gewöhnlich wenigstens teilweise Unterstützung bei den meisten Aktivitäten.

   9. Gedächtnis: Lernen und Abruf (Recall)

Gedächtnis: Probleme neue Informationen zu lernen und ab zu rufen.

0 = Normales Lernen und späteres Abrufen zeigt sich in allen funktionellen Bedingungen und in der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik (falls sie vorliegt / zugänglich ist).

1 = Milde Gedächtnisstörungen erscheinen in der formalen Untersuchung, wie der psychometrischen Testung, sie interferieren aber nicht mehr als sehr gelegentlich mit der Funktionsfähigkeit im täglichen Leben. Alternativ geben Menschen auf dieser Ebene Gedächtnisprobleme an, die möglicherweise mit anderen Faktoren attribuieren, wie Konzentration oder emotionale Sachverhalte, auch wenn keine Gedächtnisstörungen in der formalen Untersuchung auftauchen. In einigen Fällen lässt sich das Fehlen von Interferenz mit Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben auf die Implementierung von Kompensationstechniken wie externe Unterstützung oder reduzierte Anforderungen aus der Umwelt zurück führen. Personen zeigen stärkere Gedächtnisstörungen in der formalen Untersuchung, aber zeigen sich ausreichend geübt im Umgang mit Kompensationstechniken (wie z.B. Gedächtnisbuch) , so dass die Gedächtnisstörungen nur minimal mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben interferieren.

2 = Gedächtnisstörungen interferieren einige aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit mit Aktivitäten, sowohl mit als auch ohne Kompensation. Gedächtnisstörungen treten durch Vergessen und nicht durch mangelnde Konzentration verursacht auf. Mit anderen Worten: neue Information geht vor dem Wiederabruf im Zeitverlauf wirklich verloren und nicht nur aufgrund der Probleme, Informationen als Folge schwankender Aufmerksamkeit oder anderer Faktoren ab zu rufen. Gedächtnisstörungen auf dieser Ebene führen zu einigen Einschränkungen von Aktivitäten, besonders beruflichen oder erzieherischen / pädagogischen. Allerdings sind diese Probleme mit einer Reduktion der Anforderungen an die Aufmerksamkeit aus der Umwelt, eher eine Belastung / ein Ärgernis und stellen kein ernstes Problem dar.

3 = Gedächtnisstörungen interferieren mit den meisten Aktivitäten. Die Gedächtnisstörungen sind sehr stark (=4) oder Personen kompensieren auf diesem Level (=3) gewöhnlich nicht zuverlässig die Gedächtnisprobleme. Empfehlungen zu Kompensationsstrategien werden (aber dennoch) entsprechend beachtet. Auf dieser Ebene -schränken Gedächtnisstörungen berufliche Möglichkeiten stark ein und schließen typischerweise eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

Arbeitsmarkt (englisches Original: community-based employment) aus. Gedächtnisprobleme ffihren zu kritischen oder gefährlichen Situationen ffir die betroffene Person, wie Vergessen der Medikamenteneinnahme, den Herd an lassen und machen möglicherweise Unterstfitzung notwendig.

4 = Lernen und Abruf von neuer Information sind sehr begrenzt und diese starken Gedächtnisstörungen interferieren mit nahezu allen Aktivitäten; Personen auf dieser Ebene von Beeinträchtigung sind nicht in der Lage, selbstinitiierte Kompensationstechniken aufgrund der Gedächtnisstörung an zu wenden und Hinweise aus der Umwelt und andere Unterstfitzung von auf3en sind notwendig, um funktionelle Fähigkeiten zu verbessern.

10. Gedächtnis (episodisches und semantisches) / Erinnerung

an Biographie und Faktenwissen

Probleme, Informationen zu erinnern, die in der Schule oder im Beruf gelernt wurden;

Schwierigkeiten einige Jahre zurfick liegende Informationen fiber sich selbst oder die Familie zu erinnern.

0 = Normales Wiederabrufen bei später abgefragten Informationen.

In der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik sind, falls sie vorliegt / zugänglich ist, die Gedächtnistests oder Wortschatz im Durchschnittsbereich (z.B. 25 % oder höher). Der Abruf des Autobiographischen Gedächtnisses ist intakt.

1 = Einige aber signifikante Defizite zeigen sich im Wissen um allgemein gebräuchliche kulturelle Information (englisches Original: common cultural information). Einige Defizite, falls fiberhaupt vorhanden, ffihren zu Defiziten im Abruf wichtiger persönlicher Ereignisse. Psychometrische Tests sind im unteren Durchschnittsbereich (z.B. 10 – 25 %).

2 = Seltene, aber auffällige Defizite in den Gedächtnisleistungen, der Kenntnis von kulturellen Standards oder der persönlichen Vergangenheit. Psychometrische Tests sind im unteren Durchschnittsbereich zwischen 5 und 10 % .

3 = Relativ häufig treten Defizite in Kenntnis von kulturellen Standards oder im Abruf der persönlichen Geschichte auf. Psychometrische Tests sind im unteren Durchschnittsbereich zwischen 1 und 5 %.

4 = Erhebliche Defizite in Kenntnis und der Fähigkeit, die persönliche Geschichte zu beschreiben. Psychometrische Tests liegen unter 1 % .

11. Problem lösen

Problemlösungen generieren oder die beste Lösung aus wählen, um neue Probleme zu lösen / Aufgaben zu bewältigen. Problem lösen bezieht sich in diesem Kontext in erster Linie eher auf konzeptionelle Probleme, als auf zwischenmenschliche Probleme. Beeinträchtigung des konzeptionellen Problemlösens und logischen Denkens können mit dem Lösen von zwischenmenschlichen und anderen Lebensproblemen interferieren. Allerdings können emotionale Angelegenheiten/Themen möglicherweise auch mit Problemlösen in zwischenmenschlichen und realen Lebenssituationen interferieren, z.B. verffigen Menschen mit uneingeschränkter oder sogar vermehrter Fähigkeit im problemlösenden / schlussfolgerndem Denken verffigen fiber ein geringes Urteilsvermögen (englische Orginalversion: may exercise poor judgement) wenn sie ärgerlich fiber Jemanden oder Etwas sind. Im gröf3tmöglichen Ausmaf3 (englische Orginalversion: to the extent possible), beurteilt dieses Item nur den Teil des Denkens und Schlussfolgerns beim Problemlösen.

Emotionale- und Verhaltensrelevante Faktoren sollten unter entsprechenden nachfolgenden Items beurteilt werden. Diese Kategorie beinhaltet ebenso die Fähigkeit zum konzeptionellen Organisieren von Informationen und Aktivitäten, zu planen, zu entwickeln und einen persönlichen Zeitplan ein zu halten.

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Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

0 = Normales Problem lösen und abstraktes Denken in funktionellen Zusammenhängen und Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben und in der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik, falls sie vorliegt / zugänglich ist.

1 = Geringe Einschränkungen des Problemlösens und abstrakten Denkens in der formalen Testung oder anderen Assessmentsituationen, die aber nicht zu Interferenzen im täglichen Leben führen. In einigen Fällen lässt sich das Fehlen von Interferenz in Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens auf die Implementierung von Kompensationstechniken, externe Unterstützung oder reduzierte Umweltbedingungen zurückführen.

2 = Einschränkungen des Problemlösens und abstrakten Denkens interferieren mit einigen, aber nicht mit der Mehrheit der Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen selten Hilfe von Anderen, um sich Problemen zu widmen, zum Beispiel um signifikante Veränderungen in finanziellen Angelegenheiten oder in der Zukunftsplanung zu gestalten. Einschränkungen in diesem Bereich limitieren auch die beruflichen Möglichkeiten. Einschränkungen des Problemlösens und abstrakten Denkens führen selten, wenn überhaupt, zu ernsten Problemen oder Sicherheitsbedenken.

3 = Einschränkungen des Problemlösens und abstrakten Denkens interferieren mit vielen Aktivitäten und führen möglicherweise zu ernsten Problemen oder Sicherheitsbedenken. Einschränkungen limitieren signifikant berufliche Möglichkeiten und schließen möglicherweise eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt (englisches Original: community-based employment)- bis auf reine „Routine-Jobs“- aus. Bei diesen Einschränkungen empfiehlt sich regelmäßige Unterstützung oder Konsultation von Anderen, um entscheidende Lebensveränderungen vor zu nehmen oder finanzielle Entscheidungen zu treffen.

4 = Einschränkungen interferieren mit den Meisten der Aktivitäten, die das Entwickeln einer neuen Perspektive oder eines neuen Plans benötigen, um Lebensprobleme zu bewältigen. Personen auf diesem Level haben oder sollten formale Unterstützung haben, um finanzielle Angelegenheiten zu regeln und brauchen gewöhnlich Supervision, um unabhängig zu leben aufgrund von eingeschränktem Urteilsvermögen und logischem Denken.

12. Räumlich-konstruktive Fähigkeiten

Räumlich-konstruktive Fähigkeiten: Probleme beim Zeichnen, zusammen bauen / montieren von Dingen, sich beider Seiten visuell bewusst sein. Visueller Neglect sollte unter diesem Item bewertet werden. Primäre Störungen des Visuellen Systems sollten unter Item 3 (Sehen) bewertet werden.

0 = Normale räumlich-kontsruktive Fähigkeiten in funktionellen Zusammenhängen und Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens und in der neuropsychologischen Diagnostik (falls sie vorliegt / zugänglich ist).

1 = Leichte Einschränkungen der räumlich-kontsruktiven Fähigkeiten oder visueller Neglect tauchen in der formalen Untersuchung auf. Personen auf diesem Level sind in der Lage diese leichten Einschränkungen zu kompensieren bis zu einem Maß, dass sie nicht mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben interferieren oder ein Sicherheitsrisiko darstellen.

2 = Einschränkungen der räumlich-kontsruktiven Fähigkeiten oder visueller Neglect interferieren mit Einigen, aber nicht mit der Mehrzahl der Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens und behindern möglicherweise berufliche Chancen oder andere Aktivitäten. Auch auf dieser leichten Ebene von Beeinträchtigungen wird Auto fahren oder Umgang mit strombetriebenen Geräten aufgrund von Sicherheitsbedenken nicht empfohlen. Bei anderen Aktivitäten , die ein großes Maß an visueller Aufmerksamkeit oder visuo-konstruktiven Fähigkeiten für die Sicherheit voraussetzen, tauchen sehr selten ernsthafte Probleme oder Sicherheitsbedenken auf.

3 = Einschränkungen der räumlich-kontsruktiven Fähigkeiten oder visueller Neglect interferieren mit vielen Aktivitäten und behindern berufliche Chancen, ohne kompensatorische oder umweltbezogene Anpassungen der Umwelt /Umgebung stark. Einschränkungen assoziieren mit signifikanten Sicherheitsmängeln auch in Routineaktivitäten des täglichen Lebens, z.B. verläuft die Person sich, übersieht Stufen

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

oder wichtige Informationen aus einer visuellen Raumseite. Einschrsnkungen auf dieser Ebene schließen Auto fahren oder andere Aktivitsten (wie Umgang mit strombetriebenen Gersten) aus, die intakte visuelle Aufmerksamkeit und rsumlich-kontsruktive Fshigkeiten für die Sicherheit voraussetzen.

4 = Einschrsnkungen der rsumlich-kontsruktiven Fshigkeiten oder visueller Neglect interferieren mit den meisten Aktivitsten des tsglichen Leben. Signifikante Umweltanpassungen und / oder Supervision, um Sicherheit zu gewshrleisten sind gewöhnlich notwendig.

Part B Einstellungen, Interne Kontextfaktoren / Anpassung (englisches Original: Adjustment)

(* Team)

13. Angst

Anspannung, Nervösitst, Ängstlichkeit, Phobie, Symptome einer posttraumatischen Belastungsstörung wie Alptrsume, Rückblenden (englisches Original: flashback) der traumatischen Ereignisse.

0 = keine Beschwerden oder kein Nachweis einer abnormalen Anspannung oder Ängstlichkeit.

1 = Gelegentliche oder leichte Symptome einer abnormalen Anspannung oder Ängstlichkeit, aber diese interferieren nicht mit den Aktivitsten des tsglichen Leben und bedürfen keiner weiteren Untersuchung oder Behandlung. Die Symptome verursachen keine signifikanten Unterbrechungen in interpersonellen oder anderen Aktivitsten und erscheinen möglicherweise als angemessene Reaktionen auf Stresssituationen. Personen, die sich gegenwsrtig einer Behandlung unterziehen (pharmazeutisch oder psychotherapeutisch) werden ebenfalls diesem Level zugeordnet.

2 = Leichte Ängstlichkeit / Angst / Angstsymptomatik, die mit einigen aber nicht mit der Mehrzahl der Aktivitsten interferiert. Auf diesem Level werden Personen normalerweise als psychisch erkrankt diagnostiziert, etwa mit der Diagnose Anpassungsstörung mit Angstsymptomatik, Posttraumatische Belastungsstörung, Nicht spezifizierte Angststörung (englisches Original: Adjustment Disorder with Anxiety, PTSD, Anxiety Disorder NOS - Not Otherwise Specified) oder andere spezifische Phobien. Auf diesem Level interferiert Angst meist nur gelegentlich mit sozialen oder interpersonal interpersonellen Aktivitäten.

3 = Angst ist ausreichend stark, um mit vielen - inklusive beruflichen - Aktivitäten zu interferieren. Wie auf dem Level 2, werden diese Menschen normalerweise als psychisch erkrankt diagnostiziert.

4 = Angst behindert / macht berufsunfähig. Beispiele auf dieser Ebene sind Menschen, die aufgrund der Angst nicht in der Lage sind zu arbeiten oder das Haus zu verlassen, weil sie (z.B.) unter starker Agoraphobie (Angst vor offenen Plstzen) leiden.

14. Depression

Traurigkeit, Hoffnungslosigkeit, wenig Appetit, wenig Schlaf, grübeln, Selbstkritik

0 = normale Stimmung und Schwankungen in der Stimmungslage.

1 = Gelegentliche oder leichte Symptome einer Depression, aber diese interferieren nicht mit den Aktivitäten des täglichen Leben und bedürfen keiner weiteren Untersuchung oder Behandlung. Die Symptome verursachen keine signifikanten Unterbrechungen in interpersonellen oder anderen Aktivitsten und erscheinen möglicherweise als angemessene Reaktionen auf Stresssituationen („Life stress“). Personen, die sich gegenwsrtig einer Behandlung unterziehen (wie pharmazeutisch oder psychotherapeutisch) werden ebenfalls diesem Level zugeordnet.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

2 = Leichte Depression, die mit einigen aber nicht mit der Mehrzahl der Aktivitäten interferiert. Auf diesem Level werden Personen normalerweise als psychisch erkrankt diagnostiziert wie Anpassungsst6rung mit depressiver Stimmung, „Major Depression“ oder Stimmungsst6rung aufgrund der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung. Auf diesem Level machen sich Depressionen in reduzierten sozialen Kontakten oder interpersonellen Aktivitäten bemerkbar.

3 = Depression ist ausreichend stark, um mit vielen, inklusive beruflichen, Aktivitäten zu interferieren. Wie auf dem Level 2, werden diese Menschen normalerweise als psychisch erkrankt diagnostiziert.

4 = Depression ist behindernd und Menschen auf diesem Level ben6tigen m6glicherweise eine Krankenhauseinweisung. Beispiele auf dieser Ebene sind Menschen, die aufgrund der Depression nicht in der Lage sind zu arbeiten oder nahezu vollständig sozial isoliert sind oder die akut suizidal sind.

15. Reizbarkeit, Aggressivität, Wut

Verbale oder physische Expression von Aggressivität.

0 = Normale Kontrolle der aggressiven Impulse.

1 = Intermittierendes Auftreten/ Zeigen von Wut oder Aggression, gew6hnlich auf der Ebene von „Reizbarkeit“. Dieses Symptome verursachen keine signifikanten St6rungen in interpersonellen oder anderen Aktivitäten und erscheinen m6glicherweise als angemessene Reaktionen auf Stresssituationen („Life stress“) und Frustrationen.

2 = Leichter Verlust der Kontrolle fiber aggressive Impulse wird berichtet oder beobachtet. Dieses Verhalten führt zur Unterbrechung in interpersonellen Aktivitäten, st6rt aber gew6hnlich nicht signifikant oder gefährdet berufliche Aktivitäten. Auf dieser Ebene stellt sich der Verlust der Kontrolle über die Aggression gew6hnlich in den sozialen oder familiären Situationen / Kontakten selber dar. Eine psychiatrische Diagnose wie Anpassungsst6rung mit Verhaltens- oder Pers6nlichkeitsst6rung aufgrund der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung kann üblicherweise zum Einsatz kommen, obwohl die St6rung auf diesem Level auch sekundär aufgrund eines primären Partnerschafts- oder Familienkonfliktes entstehen kann.

3 = Verlust der Kontrolle fiber aggressive Impulse interferiert gelegentlich mit sozialen Aktivitäten und führt bei denen, die erwerbstätig sind zu Problemen am Arbeitsplatz. Auf diesem Level zeigt sich die Aggression ebenso in der klinischen Untersuchung. Eine psychiatrische Diagnostik wird empfohlen.

4 =Starker Verlust der Kontrolle fiber aggressive Impulse stellt für andere eine signifikante Bedrohung dar, zumindest periodisch; Personen auf dieser Ebene brauchen eine Krankenhausunterbringung, häusliche Betreuung oder weitreichende Supervision.

16. Schmerz und Kopfschmerz

Schmerzenbeschwerden und Schmerzverhalten. Wenn Schmerz seine Ursache in verschiedenen K6rperteilen hat, z.B. Kopf und Rücken, wird die gesamte Belastung bewertet.

0 = Es wird kein signifikanter Schmerz berichtet.

1 = Schmerz ist vorhanden, er interferiert aber nicht oder nur minimal mit Aktivitäten und ist nicht mit signifikanten Schmerz-Äußerungen oder Verhalten assoziiert, z.B. berichten Personen, wenn sie gefragt werden, dass ihre Kopfschmerzen seit der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung zugenommen haben, aber sie berichten nicht spontan fiber Schmerz-Beschwerden oder zeigen kein Verhalten, dass die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Beschwerden lenkt.

2 = Schmerzbeschwerden und Schmerzverhalten treten mit einer Frequenz auf, die mit einigen aber nicht mit der Mehrzahl der Aktivitäten interferiert. Auf diesem Level ist Schmerz m6glicherweise assoziiert mit spezifischen Typen von Aktivitäten oder Situationen, die vermieden werden, z.B. ein Umfeld mit hohen Anforderungen, k6rperlich anstrengende Aktivitäten oder pl6tzlich auftretende starke Reize (Lärm, helles Licht).

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

3 = Schmerzbeschwerden interferieren die meiste Zeit und können jede Aktivität unterbrechen bis zum Punkt, dass die Person auf diesem Schmerzlevel die Aktivität beenden muss. Schmerz auf dieser Ebene stellt ein signifikantes Hindernis für eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt dar (englisches Original: community-based employment).

4 = Schmerzbeschwerden behindern den betroffenen Menschen vollständig oder nahezu vollständig. Personen auf diesem Level verbringen eine signifikante Menge von Zeit im Bett oder allein aufgrund des Schmerzes; typischerweise können sie aufgrund des Schmerzes nicht arbeiten.

17. Müdigkeit

Sich müde und energielos fühlen, leicht ermüdbar, d.h. sich nach einem relativ geringem Level von mentaler oder physischer Aktivität erschöpft fühlen bzgl. der mentalen oder physischen Energie. Müdigkeit ist möglicherweise ein Symptom bei Depression und sollte hier nicht bewertet werden, außer es ist ein Problem, dass unabhängig von der Depression existiert.

0 = Es wird keine signifikante Müdigkeit berichtet oder beobachtet.

1 = Müdigkeit ist vorhanden, aber interferiert nicht oder nur minimal mit Aktivitäten. Z.B. zeigen Personen auf diesem Level, dass sie leicht ermüden aber sie kompensieren ihre Müdigkeit indem sie sich ihre Aktivitäten mit mehreren Pausen einteilen oder durch andere Methoden. Als Ergebnis ihrer Anpassung stellt Müdigkeit kein signifikantes Hindernis für ihr gesamtes Level von Aktivitäten.

2 = Müdigkeit interferiert mit einigen, aber nicht mit der Mehrheit von Aktivitäten. Auf diesem Level ist Müdigkeit möglicherweise ein Problem bei mehr anstrengenden physischen und mentalen Aktivitäten.

3 = Müdigkeit interferiert die meiste Zeit und kann jede Aktivität unterbrechen, die mehr als ein kleine Menge physischer oder mentaler Anstrengung voraussetzt. Müdigkeit in einem Ausmaß auf dieser Ebene stellt ein signifikantes Hindernis für Vollzeitbeschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt dar (englisches Original: community-based employment).

4 = Müdigkeit ist vollständig oder nahezu vollständig behindernd. Personen auf diesem Level sind die meistes Zeit des Tages aufgrund ihrer Müdigkeit inaktiv.

18. Gesteigerte Empfindlichkeit/ Wahrnehmung für geringe

Symptome

- oder Denial / Verleugnung / Minimalisieren von psychischen oder zwischenmenschlichen Problemen:

Fokussierung auf posttraumatische kognitive, physische oder emotionale Probleme. Bewertet wird nur, wie Verzweiflung und Sorge über andere Symptome gegenwärtiges „Funktionieren“ über die Symptome selbst hinaus beeinflussen. In einigen Fällen kann die Sorge über posttraumatische Symptome selber zum Problem werden. Dieses Item repräsentiert die Störungen, die möglicherweise von milder Angst bis zu Symptomen extremer Sorge und schwerer Obsession rangieren. In einigen - stärker ausgeprägten Fällen- interferiert die Fokussierung auf Symptome mit der Teilnahme an einer Rehabilitationsmaßnahme, psychotherapeutischen oder anderen empfohlenen Therapien. Einige Personen können so fokussiert darauf sein, neurologische Beschwerden zu beweisen, dass sie nicht in der Lage sind, sich effektiv an der Therapie oder Aktivitäten zu beteiligen, die ihnen möglicherweise bei einer Wiedereingliederung ins (normale) Leben und sich besser zu fühlen helfen würde. In einigen Fällen können auch Denial / Verleugnung oder Abwerten / Minimalisieren von psychischen oder zwischenmenschlichen Problemen einen negativen Einfluss haben, sowohl auf die Einstellungen, als auch auf die Teilnahme an und Nutzen durch die Therapie.

(Anmerkung / Ergänzung: Gestörte Selbstwahrnehmung wird unter Item 20 bewertet, hier sollte Denial bewertet werden, wenn die Haltung verleugnet wird, Symptome über zu bewerten).

0 = Emotionale Reaktionen und Bedenken über Symptome sind inadäquat.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

1 = Verzweiflung fiber / Fokussieren auf die Symptome, oder Denial (Leugnung) psychischer Probleme ist leicht erhöht, aber interferiert nicht mit Aktivitäten oder einer Teilnahme an der Therapie.

2 = Verzweiflung fiber / Fokussieren auf die Symptome, oder Denial (Leugnung) psychischer Probleme interferiert sowohl mit einigen -aber nicht mit der Mehrheit der -Aktivitäten, als auch mit empfohlenen Rehabilitations- oder anderen (therapeutischen) Maßnahmen. Auf diesem Level nehmen Personen normalerweise an Rehabilitations- oder anderen (therapeutischen) Maßnahmen teil, die auf Verbesserungen zielen, aber Sorgen fiber Symptome interferieren mit einer Teilnahme.

3 = Verzweiflung fiber / Fokussieren auf die Symptome, oder Denial (Leugnung) psychischer Probleme interferiert mit vielen Aktivitäten und stellt ein deutliches Hindernis in der Rehabilitationsmaßnahme, der psycho- oder anderen therapeutischen Intervention dar. Auf diesem Level spfiren Personen gewöhnlich, dass die Rehabilitations- und andere Interventionsmaßnahmen , welche die Anpassung an das Problem erhöhen, das eigentlich kritische Moment des Problems verfehlen (englische Originalversion: feel that rehabilitation and other interventions that increase adjustment to the problem fail to recognize the critical nature of the problem).

4 = Verzweiflung fiber, Fokussieren auf die Symptome, oder Denial (Leugnung) psychischer Probleme stellt ein Problem an sich dar. Auf diesem Level verweigern Personen gewöhnlich eine Rehabilitationsmaßnahme, psycho- oder andere therapeutische Interventionen mit dem Ziel Verbesserungen zu erreichen und nehmen an keinerlei Aktivitäten teil, die ihre Situation begrfindeter maßen möglicherweise verbessern könnte. Sie betreiben möglicherweise

„Doktorhobbing” (“doctor shop“) um den unanfechtbaren Beweis einer neurologischen Störung zu liefern.

19. Unangemessene soziale Interaktion

Unangemessenes soziales Verhalten: Kindisch, albern oder unhöflich. Das Verhalten ist nicht angemessen in Bezug auf Zeit und Platz / Ort. Dieses Item repräsentiert ein Bandbreite enthemmten Verhaltens, das die meisten Personen als unangemessen in Bezug auf die soziale Situation empfinden. Unangemessenes Fehlen von Antwort, sollte nicht hier, sondern unter Item 22 (Antrieb) gewertet werden.

0 = Normales Verhalten in sozialen Kontexten.

1 = Gelegentliches oder sehr selten enthemmtes oder sozial unangemessenes Verhalten. Auf diesem Level erscheint unangemessenes Verhalten häufiger als bei den meisten anderen Menschen, aber es ist nicht so außergewöhnlich, dass es zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen, Arbeit oder soziale Begegnungen stört / ernsthaft gefährdet.

2 = Enthemmtes oder sozial unangemessenes Verhalten taucht in einigen, aber nicht in der Mehrzahl der sozialen Situationen auf. Auf diesem Level erscheint unangemessenes Verhalten gewöhnlich in informellen sozialen Settings und weniger in der Arbeit oder anderen strukturierten sozialen Bedingungen. Unangemessenes Verhalten ffihrt möglicherweise gelegentlich zu Problemen in der Arbeit, aber es taucht nicht so häufig auf, dass eine Beschäftigung ernsthaft gefährdet ist.

3 = Enthemmtes oder sozial unangemessenes Verhalten taucht in vielen sozialen Situationen und zwar in Beidem auf: sowohl informellen als auch in mehr strukturierten sozialen Settings- inklusive der Arbeit. Es ist ein ernsthaftes Hindernis ffir eine Beschäftigung und schließt eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt möglicherweise aus ((englische Originalversion: community-based employment).

4 = Enthemmtes Verhalten taucht fast durchgehend auf. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen möglicherweise Supervision oder Unterbringung in einem supervidiertem Umfeld aufgrund ihres Verhaltens. Enthemmung auf diesem Level schließt eine Beschäftigung auf dem ersten Arbeitsmarkt klar aus (englische Originalversion: community-based employment).

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (Mfinchen)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

20. Gestörte Selbstwahrnehmung

Fehlen von Einsicht in pers6nliche Grenzen und Beeinträchtigungen und wie sie mit täglichen Aktivitäten wie Schule oder Arbeit interferieren.

0 = Normale Einsicht in pers6nliche Defizite und wie sie Aktivitäten beeinträchtigen. Normal“ bedeutet keine perfekte Selbstwahrnehmung da ja einige Personen wenn überhaupt (betroffen) einsichtsvoll sind (in die reduzierte Selbstwahrnehmung). (Englische Originalversion: „Normal“ does not indicate perfect self-awareness since few, if any, people are this insightful.)

Normal“ bedeutet, dass eine begrenzte Selbstwahrnehmung verbal ausgedrückt wird oder in Aktivitäten und Beziehungen nicht mehr als bei den meisten anderen Personen erscheint.

1 = Begrenzte Selbstwahrnehmung fällt in erster Linie durch eine Tendenz auf, persönliche Schwächen zu bagatellisieren. Personen auf dieser Ebene sind sich im Allgemeinen ihrer Defizite bewusst, kompensieren sie relativ konsistent und vermeiden gew6hnlich Situationen, in denen ihre Defizite zu gr6l3eren Problemen führen.

2 = Personen auf dieser Ebene sind generell in der Lage, über ihre Defizite zu berichten und kompensieren sie auch relativ konsistent mit dem Gebrauch eines Gedächtnisbuches oder anderen Techniken. Allerdings antizipieren sie nicht zuverlässig die Folgen von kognitiven Defiziten oder Verhaltensauffälligkeiten in allen Situationen. Als Folge interferiert eine limitierte Selbstwahrnehmung mit zwischenmenschlichen und anderen Aktivitäten die meiste Zeit.

3 = Gestörte Selbstwahrnehmung beeinträchtigt die meisten zwischenmenschlichen und anderen Aktivitäten. Auf diesem Level erkennen Personen m6glicherweise ihre Defizite bis zu einem bestimmten Grad und berichten gew6hnlich, dass sie „Gedächtnis“- oder andere kognitive Probleme haben. Allerdings antizipieren sie typischerweise nicht, wie diese Defizite mit Aktivitäten interferieren oder kompensieren diese nicht mit dem Gebrauch eines Gedächtnisbuches oder anderen Techniken.

4 = Wahrnehmung pers6nlicher Grenzen ist bei Personen auf dieser Stufe so beeinträchtigt, dass es zu konstanten Problemen in den meisten Interaktionen kommt. Diese Personen leugnen generell, dass sie Probleme aufgrund der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung haben, trotz offensichtlicher Beeinträchtigungen. Im Extremfall leugnen sie auch, dass sie eine Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung haben, trotz augenscheinlicher sowohl k6rperlicher als auch kognitiver Beeinträchtigungen.

21. Familienbeziehungen / Beziehungen zu nahe stehenden

Personen

Interaktionen mit nahe stehenden Personen. Beschreibt Stresssituationen innerhalb der Familie oder (der Person mit Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung) sehr nahe stehenden Personen.

Familiäres „Funktionieren“ heil3t kooperieren, um Aufgaben zu bewältigen, die erledigt werden müssen, um den Haushalt zu führen, genauso wie sich gegenseitige Unterstützung zu geben. „Familie“ meint diejenigen Menschen, mit denen die betroffene Person eng zusammenlebt und die entweder ein traditionelles oder auch nicht-traditionelles Familiengefüge repräsentieren.

0 = Normale Stresssituationen. Die meisten Familien erleben ab und zu Stresssituationen, besonders im Zusammenhang mit Problemen, die Kinder in Bezug auf Themen wie Abhängigkeit / Unabhängigkeit betreffen oder Familienmitglieder erleben Stresssituationen aul3erhalb der Familie. Auf dieser Ebene liegt Stress innerhalb der Familie in einem Rahmen, der durch die Fähigkeit der Familie zur Bewältigung gut kompensiert werden kann.

1 = Auf dieser Ebene ist Stress signifikant genug, um die Fähigkeiten der Familienmitglieder zur Bewältigung heraus zu fordern, aber er führt nicht zu anhaltendem Disstrel3 und einer signifikanten St6rung der familiären Routine oder Haushaltsführung.

2 = „Familiäres „Funktionieren“ (Partnerschaftliches Zusammenleben) ist gestört, aber nicht in der Mehrheit der Zeit. Auseinandersetzungen oder Zurückziehen der Familienmitglieder finden häufiger statt. Mahlzeiten und Routine-Haushalt-Tätigkeiten werden nicht konsistent erledigt und führen zu zusätzlichem Stress oder Disstrel3. Allerdings spüren die

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

Familienmitglieder, dass die Situation verbessert werden kann und sind noch in der Lage, sich gegenseitig zu unterstützen. Familien-Beratung ist eine Option, wird aber nicht deutlich (an)gefordert.

3 = Familiäre Routine, Haushalt und sich innerhalb der Familie gegenseitige Unterstützung geben sind für die Familienmitglieder die meiste Zeit unbefriedigend. Auseinandersetzungen oder Zurückziehen der Familienmitglieder finden häufiger statt. Zusammenhalt innerhalb der Familie fehlt weitgehend oder ist pathologisch bis zum Punkt von Verstrickung (z.B. unangemessenes, nicht-konstruktives oder potentiell destruktives Einmischen in die –persönlichen- Belange der Anderen.). Familientherapie wird gewöhnlich empfohlen.

4 = Auf diesem Level, ist die Familie / das partnerschaftliches Zusammenleben charakterisiert durch ein weitgehendes Fehlen von Zusammenhalt oder offensichtlich pathologische Verstrickungen. Familientherapie wird dringend empfohlen.

Part C Partizipation

22. Antrieb

Probleme, Aktivitäten ohne Verzögerung zu starten. Dieses Item bezieht sich auf einen Mangel an Motivation oder Entschlussunfähigkeit, die einige Frontal-Hirn-Funktionen charakterisiert. In einigen Fällen ist reduzierte Aktivität und Mangel an Initiierung auf psychische Gründe, wie Depression, zurück zu führen. Gestörte Initiierung sollte hier bewertet werden, wenn sie vermutlich eher auf neurologische als auf psychische Ursache beruht. Gestörter Antrieb wird auf eine neurologische und nicht auf eine psychologische Ursache zurück geführt.

0 = Normale Initiierung von Aktivitäten

1= Auf dieser Ebene benötigen Personen möglicherweise einen erhöhten Grad von Zuspruch und Unterstützung um sich an einer Unterhaltung oder anderen Aktivitäten zu beteiligen, aber ihr gesamtes Level von Aktivität und Teilnahme ist nicht signifikant reduziert. Selbstgesteuerte Kompensationsmechanismen ( z.B. Hinweise / „Cues“, Wecker, Aufforderung) oder Medikamente werden möglicherweise benutzt, um ein normales Level von Initiierung und Aktivierung zu erreichen.

2 = Aufforderung durch Andere wird manchmal zur Initiierung, aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit benötigt. Das Aktivitätslevel ist insgesamt reduziert. Auf dieser Ebene führt der Mangel an Initiierung gewöhnlich nicht zu Sicherheitsrisiken. Er begrenzt möglicherweise Berufschancen aber schließt Berufstätigkeit nicht aus.

3 = Aufforderung durch Andere wird die Mehrheit der Zeit zur Initiierung von Verhalten benötigt. Mangel an Initiierung führt gelegentlich zu gefährlichen Situationen durch Fehlen einer Initiierung entscheidendes Verhaltens z.B. bei Medikamenteneinnahme oder Mahlzeitenzubereitung. Gestörte Initiierung stellt ein signifikantes Hindernis für eine Berufstätigkeit dar (englische Originalversion: community-based employment).

4 = Auf dieser Ebene initiieren Personen selten Verhalten ohne Aufforderung, sogar im zwischenmenschlichem Kontakt. Gestörte Initiierung zeigt sich in deutlichen Sicherheitsbedenken und macht Unterstützung notwendig. Stark gestörte Initiierung schließt normalerweise eine Beschäftigung aus (englische Originalversion: community-based employment).

23. Sozialer Kontakt zu FreundInnen, ArbeitskollegInnen oder

anderen Personen (nicht zur Familie gehörend , keine Fachleute des Reha- oder Gesundheitswesens)

Der Fokus dieses Item liegt auf der Frequenz von Kontakten und der Beschaffenheit der Beziehung zu Menschen, die nicht in einer verwandtschaftlichen oder beruflichen Beziehung zu der Person mit dem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma stehen. Das Ausmaß von „normaler sozialer Aktivität“

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in jeder Altersgruppe ist relativ weit. Manche Menschen sind vom Temperament her eher introvertiert und haben eine kleine Anzahl weniger Freunde mit denen sie regelmäf3ig, aber selten an Aktivitäten teilnehmen. Andere sind eher extrovertiert und haben eine grof3e Anzahl an Freunden und Bekannten, mit denen sie fast täglich Kontakt haben.

Typischerweise verändert sich das Ausmaf3 sozialer Aktivitäten mit dem Alter und familiären Verpflichtungen. Beim Bewerten dieses Items dient das prämorbide Level von Aktivitäten als Indikator für den gewünschten Grad von sozialen Kontakten. Wie bei den meisten Items, ist es oft schwierig, sich ein Bild fiber den prämorbiden Status zu machen, der möglicherweise von den Betroffenen und ihrem Umfeld idealisiert wird. Die Zufriedenheit der Menschen (die eingeschätzt werden) mit ihrem derzeitigem sozialem Leben ist daher ein anderer potentieller Indikator daffir ob das Ausmaf3 ihrer sozialen Aktivitäten „normal“ ffir sie ist.

0 = Normales Ausmal3 ffir das Alter in Bezug auf Frequenz und Konsistenz verglichen mit anderen Personen dieser Alterstufe, in Abhängigkeit von persönliche Zufriedenheit und der zur Verffigung stehenden Zeit – in Anbetracht von Arbeit und familiären Verpflichtungen.

1 = Gelegentliche Unzufriedenheit, begrenzte Initiierung oder Hindernisse ffir soziale Kontakte werden berichtet. Dies geschieht jedoch selten und berfihrt soziale Kontakte weniger als 5% der Zeit. Personen auf diesem Level berichten fiber eine allumfassende Zufriedenheit mit ihrem sozialen Leben.

2 = Unzufriedenheit, begrenzte Initiierung oder andere Hindernisse interferieren häufig, aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit (< 25%) mit sozialen Kontakten. Personen auf diesem Level sind mehr isoliert oder von familiären und beruflichen Kontakten abhängig, als es in ihrem Alter üblich ist. Sie äuf3ern möglicherweise eine leichte Unzufriedenheit fiber ihr soziales Leben / das Ausmaf3 ihrer sozialen Kontakte.

3 = Unzufriedenheit, begrenzte Initiierung oder andere Hindernisse interferieren die Mehrheit mit dem sozialen Leben. Soziale Aktivitäten auf3er mit Familie oder KollegInnen sind eher die Ausnahme als die Regel. Personen auf diesem Level sind relativ isoliert und äul3ern signifikante Unzufriedenheit mit dem Fehlen sozialen Eingebundenseins.

4 = Abgesehen von familiären und beruflichen Kontakten, sind soziale Aktivitäten sehr selten oder existieren gar nicht. Menschen auf diesem Level sind sozial isoliert und äuf3ern möglicherweise eine starke Unzufriedenheit fiber das Ausmaf3 ihrer sozialen Kontakte / Aktivitäten.

24. Aktivitäten der Erholung und Freizeitbeschäftigung

Beim Bewerten dieses Items, wird ähnlich wie bei Item 23 vorgegangen, was die Berficksichtigung von Frequenz, Konsistenz und Zufriedenheit betrifft, um zu entscheiden, in welchem Maf3 Freizeit- und Erholungs- Aktivitäten als „normal“ ffir das Alter angesehen werden. Der Grad des Engagements bei anderen Aktivitäten oder Verantwortlichkeiten sollte auch berficksichtigt werden. So ist es z.B. „normal“, dass Personen, die Vollzeit arbeiten und familiäre Verpflichtungen haben, weniger Freizeitaktivitäten nachgehen, als Personen mit weniger Arbeit und familiären Verpflichtungen. Erholung und Freizeitbeschäftigungen, die hier bewertet werden, setzen ein bestimmtes Maf3 an körperlicher oder intellektueller Aktivität voraus. Alte Filme im Fernsehen an schauen wfirde z.B. nicht als Freizeitbeschäftigung gewertet werden, auf3er die Person ist Mitglied eines Clubs oder einer Gruppe, in dem /der alte Filme gewöhnlich diskutiert werden. Ähnlich wird Lesen nicht unter diesem Item gewertet, auf3er wenn dieses Lesen zu weniger passiven Aktivitäten wie schreiben, diskutieren, Vokabeln lernen / Wortschatz aufbauen oder Forschen/ Recherche ffihrt. Einige Freizeitaktivitäten wie Malen oder Modellieren werden möglicherweise allein/isoliert ausgeffihrt, werden aber bewertet, da sie eine Auseinandersetzung mit der Umwelt voraussetzen und Greifbares produzieren.

Anmerkung: Da Freizeitaktivitäten wie Lesen oder Kreuzworträtseln zu einem Zustand der inneren Zufriedenheit oder Entspannung führen können, sollte das interdisziplinäre Team diskutieren, ob diese Art von Freizeitbeschäftigungen nicht auch hier unter Item 24 bewertet werden sollten. Der Verlust sportlicher Hobbies ist ebenfalls häufiges Problem in der

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Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

neurologischen Rehabilitation; auch dieses Problematik könnte durch Einschluss in die Liste von Aktivitäten der Erholung und Freizeitbeschäftigung Berücksichtigung finden.

0 = Normales Ausmai3 an Freizeitbeschäftigung (für das Alter) in Hinblick auf Frequenz und Beschaffenheit verglichen mit anderen Personen gleichen Alters, in Abhängigkeit von persönlicher Zufriedenheit und neben der Arbeit und familiären Verpflichtungen zur Verfügung stehender Zeit.

1 = Gelegentliche Unzufriedenheit, begrenzte Initiierung / Initiative oder Hindernisse interferieren mit Freizeitaktivitäten; aber diese Hemmnisse sind relativ selten und berühren Freizeitaktivitäten weniger als 5 % der Zeit. Im Allgemeinen drücken Personen auf dieser Ebene allgemeine Zufriedenheit mit ihrer Freizeit aus.

2 = Unzufriedenheit, begrenzte Initiierung / Initiative oder Hindernisse interferieren häufig mit Freizeitaktivitäten, aber nicht die Mehrheit (weniger als 25 %) der Zeit. Personen auf dieser Ebene sind weniger aktiv, als es „angemessen“ für ihr Alter ist. Sie drücken möglicherweise eine milde Unzufriedenheit mit ihren Freizeitinteressen und -aktivitäten aus.

3 = Unzufriedenheit , begrenzte Initiierung / Initiative oder Hindernisse interferieren die Mehrheit der Zeit. Teilnahme an Freizeitaktivitäten ist eher die Ausnahme als die Regel. Personen auf dieser Ebene sind relativ häuslich (englische Originalversion: sedentary) und drücken möglicherweise eine signifikante Unzufriedenheit mit ihrem Level von Freizeitinteressen und -aktivitäten aus.

4 = Freizeitaktivitäten sind auf diesem Level sehr selten oder nicht vorhanden. Personen auf dieser Ebene sind generell häuslich (englische Originalversion: sedentary) und drücken eine signifikante Unzufriedenheit mit ihrem Level von Freizeitinteressen und -aktivitäten aus.

(* Ergo)

25. Selbstversorgung

Essen, Anziehen, Baden, Hygiene. Dieses Item bewertet das Ausmal3 der Unabhängig bei Basis-Selbstversorgungsaktivitäten, die Essen, Anziehen, Baden und Aspekte der persönlichen Hygiene beinhalten. Bei der Bewertung muss die Performanz (Ausführung) sozialen Standards entsprechen, z.B. können sich Personen möglicherweise routinemäl3ig anziehen und pflegen ohne Assistenz von andren Personen; allerdings werden sie, wenn ihre Erscheinung ungepflegt (englische Originalversion: disheveled) und ihre Körperpflege inkomplett ist, nicht mit „0“ bewertet. In diesen Fällen, sollten sie aufgrund des Ausmal3es der Assistenz bewertet werden, die sie benötigen, damit ihre Performanz akzeptabel ist.

0 = Basis-Selbstversorgungsaktivitäten werden selbständig mit einem sozial akzeptablen Ergebnis bewältigt. Es wird keine Assistenz, Aufforderung / Zuspruch oder Hilfsmittel benötigt, um diese Aktivitäten zu bewältigen.

1 = Selbstversorgungsaktivitäten werden weitgehend selbständig unter Verwendung von Hilfsmitteln oder eines externen Systems zur Aufforderung oder Erinnerung oder weniger effektiv bewältigt. Auf dieser Ebene führen Personen diese Aktivitäten mit gröi3erer Anstrengung oder langsamer als die meisten Personen gleichen Alters aus. Falls Assistenz oder Aufforderung durch eine andere Person notwendig ist, dann nur selten (<5 % der Zeit).

2 = Auf dieser Ebene benötigen Personen häufig, aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit (>25%), Assistenz von einer anderen Person bei der Selbstversorgung. Die Assistenz beinhaltet Aufforderung oder Erinnerung durch die andere Person.

3 = Körperliche Assistenz, Aufforderung oder Erinnerung oder durch eine andere Person ist die Mehrheit der Zeit notwendig, um eine akzeptable Ausführung der Basis-Selbstversorgung zu erreichen.

4 = Körperliche Assistenz, Aufforderung oder Erinnerung wird in der Mehrheit oder Gesamtheit der Zeit benötigt, um eine akzeptable Ausführung der Basis-Selbstversorgung zu erreichen.

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Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

26. Selbständige Lebens- und Haushaltsführung

Pflichten unabhängiger Lebens- und Haushaltsffihrung ( wie Kochen, Reparaturen und Instandhaltung, pers6nliche Gesundheitsffirsorge fiber Basis-Hygiene und Medikamentenmanagement hinaus). Dieses Item beinhaltet nicht Finanzverwaltung (siehe 29); es fokussiert das Ausmal3 der Supervision, die eine Person ben6tigt, um den Wohnsitz instand zu halten. Dieses Item spiegelt die Dimension, die durch die Supervision Rating Scale (SRS –4 *) definiert wird. Eine Version zum Herunterladen und weitere Informationen fiber die SRS ist auf der COMBI Webside (www.tbims/org.combi) verffigbar.

0 = Unabhängiges Leben (allein oder mit Anderen). Wenn die Person mit Anderen zusammen lebt, erhält sie keine Supervision oder spezielle Hilfe von diesen Personen. Sie scheint in der Lage zu sein, alleine zu leben. Sie bewältigt Basis- und Instrumentale ADL´s (Activities of daily living = Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens) ohne Assistenz und in akzeptabler Weise, die dadurch gekennzeichnet ist, dass es keine pers6nlichen Zweifel oder die anderer Personen an ihrem selbständigem Leben gibt. Äquivalent zu Score 1 oder 2 der SRS (Supervision Rating Scale* ).

1 = Obwohl die Erffillung der Pflichten unabhängiger Lebensffihrung und die Ausffihrung der Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens (aul3er Finanzverwaltung) auf einem generell akzeptiertem Level zu sein scheinen, werden ein gewisser Grad an Zweifel bzgl. Sicherheit oder seltene Beispiele von Schwierigkeiten berichtet. Äquivalent zu Score 3 der SRS (Supervision Rating Scale*.

2 = Assistenz oder Supervision werden in geringem Ausmaß / in einem kleinen Teil der Zeit

benötigt, z.B. einige Stunden am Tag. Äquivalent zu Score 4 oder 5 der SRS

Supervision Rating Scale*.

3 = Assistenz oder Supervision werden nahezu die gesamte Zeit benötigt, z.B. mehr als 8 Stunden am Tag und so aufwendig, dass eine spezielle Pflegefachkraft angestellt werden muss oder dass eine enge Bezugsperson nicht in der Lage ist, einer Vollzeitbeschäftigung aul3erhalb des Hauses nach zu gehen. Äquivalent zu Score 6 oder 7 der SRS (Supervision Rating Scale*).

4 = Assistenz oder Supervision werden nahezu die gesamte Zeit benötigt. Personen auf diesem Level werden mit 8 oder h6her auf der SRS (Supervision Rating Scale*) bewertet.

(* Physio/Team)

27. Mobilität, Transport (Fahreignung, Benutzung öffentlicher

Verkehrsmittel; englische Originalversion: Transportation)

Unabhängigkeit in der Mobilität fiber gr6l3ere geographische Distanzen. Bei der Bewertung dieses Items wird Zweierlei berficksichtigt: einerseits die Fähigkeit diese Aktivität ohne Assistenz zu bewältigen und anderseits Limitierungen durch die Umweltbedingungen. So sind z.B. einige Personen m6glicherweise in der Lage 6ffentliche Verkehrsmittel zu benutzen, aber diese sind nicht vorhanden, da sie in einer sehr ländlichen Gegend wohnen. In diesen Fällen werden die Personen bewertet, als ob sie die meiste oder gesamte Zeit Unterstfitzung ben6tigen wfirden, da sie nicht Auto fahren k6nnen und Fortbewegung mit dem Auto die einzige Fortbewegungsm6glichkeit ist.

Anmerkung: Dieses Item berücksichtigt auch die örtliche Orientierungsfähigkeit z.B. bei der Differenzierung von bekannten bzw. unbekannten Wegen. Die Beschreibung dieses Items beinhaltet nicht das Fahrrad fahren, das in den USA eher als Sportgerät, aber weniger als Transportmittel genutzt wird. Gegebenfalls kann die Fortbewegung mit einem Fahrrad ergänzt werden.

0 = Personen auf dieser Ebene sind in der Lage alle Formen des Transports sicher und unabhängig zu nutzen, inklusive ein eigenes Auto. Sie haben eine Fahrerlaubnis (um ein eigenes Kraftfahrzeug zu ffihren). Fahrrad fahren ist sicher und ohne Schwierigkeiten möglich. 1 = Personen auf dieser Ebene benutzen alle Formen des Transports selbständig, aber andere haben Bedenken bzgl. der Sicherheit bei diesen Aktivitäten, gew6hnlich in Bezug auf Ihre Fahreignung. Diese Kategorie beinhaltet auch Personen, die komplett und sicher und

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selbständig alle Formen des Transports nutzen, außer dass sie kein eigenes Auto fahren (wollen) oder keine Erlaubnis dazu haben. Fahrrad fahren ist nicht sicher und nur mit Schwierigkeiten möglich.

2 = Auf diesem Level, benötigen Personen ein geringes Ausmaß an Unterstützung beim Transport z.B. in weniger als 25% (der Fälle /) der Zeit. Normalerweise können sie nicht Auto fahren. Möglicherweise benötigen sie physische Unterstützung oder kognitive Hilfe wie Fahrplan zusammenstellen und Aufforderung oder Erinnerung, den Fahrplan zu behalten. Fahrrad fahren ist nur mit einem Dreirad möglich, evtl. haben andere Personen Bedenken ,ob dies sicher und ohne Schwierigkeiten möglich ist.

3 = Physische oder kognitive Unterstützung beim Transport wird die meiste Zeit benötigt. Personen auf dieser Ebene kennen möglicherweise einige bekannte Routen, die sie selbständig bewältigen aber sie benötigen Unterstützung beim Transport zu allen anderen Orten. Sie können nicht Auto und auch nicht Fahrrad fahren.

4 = Physische oder kognitive Unterstützung wird für den meisten oder jeden Transport benötigt. Die Personen können nicht Auto auch nicht Fahrrad fahren.

(* Sozialtherapie/ Neuropsychologie/ Primärtherapeutin)

28 A Bezahlte / Berufliche Tätigkeit

Diese Kategorie beinhaltet nur bezahlte Arbeit. Alle anderen Kategorien von produktiver Aktivität werden unter 28 B (Andere Beschäftigung) bewertet. Eine Person sollte nur unter 28 B oder A, aber nicht unter Beiden bewertet werden. Diese Person sollte nach ihrer sozialen Rolle, die primär durch das Ausmaß der Zeit bestimmt wird, das der Rolle gewidmet wird und den Wert, den die Person ihr bei misst, z.B. sollte eine beschäftigte Mutter, die Vollzeit arbeitet, unter 28 A (Bezahlte Tätigkeit) gewertet werden. Auf der anderen Seite, wird eine beschäftigte Mutter, die sich entschieden hat nur Teilzeit zu arbeiten, weil sie ihre eigentliche Rolle als „Hausfrau“ sieht unter 28 B gewertet. Ein/e Student/in, der /die hauptsächlich arbeitet, um das Studium zu finanzieren, wird als „Student/in“ unter 28 B gewertet. Eine Person, die sich in einer Rehabilitationsmaßnahme befindet, um in ihre ursprüngliche geschätzte soziale Rolle zurück zu kehren, wird in Hinblick auf die primäre soziale Rolle gewertet, zu der sie zurück kehren will. Mit anderen Worten, eine nicht-beschäftigte Person, die eine bezahlte Arbeit sucht sollte unter 28 A codiert/bewertet werden, die selbe Person, die versucht, zur Schule oder in die Rolle als „Hausfrau/Hausmann“ zurück zu kehren unter 28 B.

Außer für den besonderen Fall der Berentung unter 60 Jahren (siehe Beschreibung unter 28 B) ist die Person, die bewertet wird, die letztendliche Autorität in Bezug auf die primär gewünschte soziale Rolle.

Für Beide, 28 A und B, kann „Unterstützung“ bei der Beschäftigung permanent oder temporär sein und beinhaltet spezielle Assistenz anderer Personen wie ein Berufsbegleiter (engl. „job coach or shadow“) Tutor, Haushälterin oder andere Formen von Helfern, inklusive “natürliche” Unterstützung durch die Familie, FreundInnen oder ArbeitskollegInnen.

„Unterstützung“ (bedeutet auch eine Veränderung der Anforderungen und) beinhaltet z.B. auch laufendes Entgegenkommen in Bezug zu Zeitbedingungen wie eine reduzierte Arbeitsbelastung (z.B. geringere Produktivität pro Zeiteinheit), zusätzliche Zeit für einige Aktivitäten (z.B. verlängerte Zeit bei Prüfungen für Studenten), längere oder häufigere Pausen oder andere Planmodifikationen.

„Unterstützung“ beinhaltet keine physische Unterstützung wie Rampen, Sehhilfen oder irgendeine aus einer Reihe von einmaligen Modifikationen der physikalischen Umgebung, die Beschäftigung ermöglicht.

0 = Auf dieser Ebene arbeiten Personen 30 oder mehr Stunden / Woche ohne Unterstützung. Es bestehen möglicherweise lokale Variationen was unter „Vollzeitbeschäftigung“ verstanden wird. Z.B. werden Personen unter manchen Bedingungen als „Vollzeitbeschäftigte“ behandelt, sind aber angewiesen nicht mehr als 28 Stunden / Woche zu arbeiten, weil der Arbeitgeber

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gezwungen ist zusätzliche Bezfige zu zahlen, wenn die Beschäftigung dieses Maß fiberschreitet. Bei Bewertung dieses Items sollte die lokale Definition von „Vollzeitbeschäftigung“ angewendet werden (und das sind gewöhnlich 30 Stunden Arbeit oder mehr pro Woche).

1 = Diese Ebene enthält nur bezahlte Teilzeitbeschäftigung ohne Unterstfitzung. Die Beschäftigung beinhaltet eine Tätigkeit zwischen 3 und 30 Stunden / Woche.

Personen, die sehr unregelmäßig arbeiten, und das sind weniger als Beschäftigung zwischen 3 und 30 Stunden / Woche, werden als „nicht beschäftigt / arbeitslos“ betrachtet.

2 = Diese Ebene enthält Voll- oder Teilzeitbeschäftigung mit Unterstfitzung, wie sie oben definiert ist. Unterstfitzung kann temporär oder dauerhaft sein.

3 = Diese Ebene enthält nur Beschäftigung in einer beschützten Werkstätte.

4 = Wenn die Kriterien nicht auf eine der oberen Kategorien zutreffen, wird die Person als „nicht beschäftigt / arbeitslos“ betrachtet und auf dieser Ebene gewertet.

28 B Andere Beschäftigung / Arbeit

Diese Kategorie beinhaltet die formale Schulausbildung, Ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit, Haushaltsffihrung und Personen, die aufgrund des Alters (fiber 60 bzw. dem herkömmlichen Rentenalters) Rentner/in sind. Personen, die sich selbst als Rentner/in bezeichnen, aber unter 60 (bzw. dem herkömmlichen Rentenalter) sind, werden nach ihrer sozialen Rolle vor der Berentung bewertet. „Unterstfitzung“ wird unter 28 A definiert.

0 = Diese Ebene enthält:

* selbständige Haushaltsffihrung, in der „Hausfrau / Hausmann“ die primäre soziale Rolle ist; die Aufgaben umfassen bis zu 30 Stunden jede Woche. In den meisten Fällen beinhaltet die „Vollzeit-Haushaltsffihrung“, Kinderbetreuung oder die Pflege anderer Personen, wie behinderte / erkrankte Eltern

* „Vollzeit-Schule“ / (Studium) d.h. Bewältigung des altersentsprechenden Klassenstoffes ohne spezielle Unterrichts-, (Stunden-)Plan-Veränderungen oder andere Unterstfitzung

* Ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit für mehr als 30 Stunden /Woche ohne spezielle Assistenz oder Unterstfitzung. Auf diesem Level, wurde die Ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit gewählt, weil die Person fiber finanzielle Reserven verffigt und nicht arbeiten muss, um Geld zu verdienen. Personen, die gern arbeiten möchten und (nur) ehrenamtlich tätig sind, weil sie keine bezahlte Arbeit gefunden haben, sollten als „nicht beschäftigt / arbeitslos“ unter 28 A bewertet werden

* Rentner/in, die /der sich aber in einer der Rolle angemessenen Aktivität für mehr als 30 Stunden /Woche engagiert. Typischerweise sind solche Aktivitäten Kombinationen aus Ehrenamtlicher Tätigkeit, den (eigenen) Kindern bei der Kinderbetreuung zu helfen, persönlichen Bedfirfnissen oder organisierten Freizeitaktivitäten mit Gleichgesinnten nachgehen

1 = Diese Ebene enthält:

* selbständige Haushaltsführung weniger als 30, aber mehr als 3 Stunden / Woche

* StudentInnen, die mindestens an einem Seminar und an „akademischen Aktivitäten“ teilnehmen für mindestens 3 Stunden / Woche, aber nicht „Vollzeit“. „Akademische Aktivitäten“ mfissen ohne spezielle Förderung oder andere Unterstützung, wie oben definiert, bewältigt werden

* Selbständige Ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit zwischen 3 und 30 Stunden /Woche im Schnitt.

* Rentner/in, fiber 60 und sich mit der Rolle angemessenen Aktivitäten zwischen 3 und 30 Stunden /Woche beschäftigen

2 = Diese Ebene entspricht einer Beteiligung an folgenden Aktivitäten ffir mindestens 3 Stunden / Woche mit Unterstützung:

* Haushaltsffihrung mit Unterstfitzung einer bezahlten Hilfe oder eines Familienmitglieds. In diesen Fällen ist das Ausmaß an „Unterstfitzung“ größer als normalerweise von Angehörigen, Ehe- oder Lebenspartner/in erwartet wird

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* „Vollzeit“ oder „Teilzeit“ – „Schule“ mit speziellem Unterricht, speziellen Angeboten, Privatlehrer/in oder anderer Unterstützung

* Ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit mit spezieller Assistenz oder Unterstützung

* RentnerInnen-Aktivitäten die weitgehend mit Unterstützung bewältigt werden. Ein Beispiel sind berentete Menschen, die vorzugsweise an Freizeitaktivitäten in einem Gemeindezentrum teilnehmen, die von den dort Angestellten geleitet werden.

3 = Diese Ebene beinhaltet die Bewältigung rollenspezifischer Aktivitäten in einem supervidiertem Setting für mindestens 3 Stunden die Woche mit Ausnahme einer beschützten Werkstatt. Z.B. sind das Menschen, die ein Ehrenamt ausüben oder „Hausmann / Hausfrau“ sind oder an Freizeitaktivitäten - in einem Zentrum für betreutes Wohnen, in dem sie leben – teilnehmen; Personen, die in einer beschützten Werkstatt arbeiten, sollten unter Item 28 A (3 = beschützte Werkstatt) bewertet werden.

4 = Diejenigen, deren gewünschte soziale Rolle keine bezahlte Arbeit ist, aber auf die keine der oben genannten Kriterien der oberen Kategorien zutreffen, werden als „nicht-beschäftigt“ betrachtet und auf diesem Level bewertet / mit 4 codiert.

(* Ergotherapie / Neuropsychologie/ Team)

29. Geld und Finanzen verwalten

Einkaufen und Scheck oder Karte verwenden, persönliches Einkommen und Investitionen verwalten /anlegen. Bei Bewertung dieses Item bezieht sich „Einkaufen“ auf den Gebrauch von Geld beim Warenerwerb. Andere Aspekte des Einkaufens z.B. „genügend Waren beschaffen, um den Haushalt zu versorgen“ werden unter Item 26 „Selbständige Lebens- und Haushaltsführung“ beurteilt. In die Bewertung dieses Items fliel3t ein, ob die Menge des Geldes, das zu verwalten ist, grol3 oder klein ist. Personen, die in der Lage sind, kleine Anschaffungen mit einer relativ geringen Menge an Geld für Kleidung, Lebensmittel oder andere persönliche Bedürfnisse managen, aber ein Risiko beim Verwalten gröl3erer Mengen haben, nicht in der Lage sind, umsichtig / vorsichtig Investitionen ohne Unterstützung zu tätigen oder gefährdet sind, anfällig dafür sind ausgenutzt (betrogen) zu werden, bewertet man mit 3 oder 4. Einige Personen sind möglicherweise in der Lage ihre Finanzen zu verwalten, tun es aber nicht, da diese Pflicht in den Verantwortungsbereich einer anderen Person, häufig Ehe- oder Lebenspartner/in, fällt. In diesen Fällen sollte das Rating auf der beobachteten Leistungsfähigkeit basieren.

0 = Grol3e und kleine Mengen Geld und persönliche Finanzen werden selbständig gemanagt. Beratung über Finanzstrategien wird periodisch bei Anderen oder professionellen Beratern gesucht. Allerdings scheint das in Anspruch nehmen dieser Hilfen nicht unbedingt notwendig zu sein, um die angemessene Verwendung und Management der persönlichen Finanzen zu gewährleisten.

1 = Grol3e und kleine Mengen Geld und persönliche Finanzen werden selbständig gemanagt. Andere haben Bedenken beim Management gröl3erer Geldmengen und persönlicher Finanzen. Personen, bei denen auch Bedenken in der Verwaltung kleinerer Geldmengen bestehen, werden mit Level 3 oder 4 bewertet.

2 = Auf dieser Ebene, benötigen die Personen ein geringes Ausmal3 an Routine-Unterstützung beim Management gröl3erer Geldmengen und persönlicher Finanzen. Sie sind z.B. in der Lage beim Einkaufen auf zu passen und ein Scheck-Buch zu verwenden, aber sie lassen sich routinemäl3ig von einem zuverlässigem Berater oder bezahlten Gutachter für Geldanlagen oder längerfristige Finanzentscheidungen beraten.

3 = Unterstützung ist die Mehrheit der Zeit notwendig, um Beides, grol3e und kleine Mengen Geld zu verwalten. Typischerweise können Personen auf dieser Ebene nicht selbständig ein Scheckbuch verwalten und benötigen Unterstützung, um die meisten wichtigen Anschaffungen zu tätigen. Sie brauchen Unterstützung beim Managen von Sparprogrammen und bei längerfristigen Finanzentscheidungen. Trotzdem sind sie selbständig und benötigen keine Hilfe, um kleine Anschaffungen zu tätigen.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

4 = Auf dieser Ebene benötigen Personen Unterstützung in nahezu allen, auch den einfachsten Aktivitäten, die den Geldgebrauch betreffen. Z.B. ist ihr Geldgebrauch auf einige wenige Anschaffungen begrenzt, die wenig kosten. Auch in diesen Situationen sind sie gewöhnlich nicht in der Lage zu prüfen, ob das Wechselgeld stimmt und sie verwenden alternative Strategien, wie z.B. die genau abgezählte Geldmenge zum Einkauf mit zu nehmen. Typischerweise besitzen andere Personen, wie Pfleger oder Vormund, die gesetzlich übertragene Verwaltung der Finanzen auf dieser Ebene.

Part D Prämorbide und assoziierte Konditionen

Die Items des nächsten Abschnitts Part D werden nicht zum gesamten Summenscore oder den Subskalen des MPAI hinzugerechnet, da sie nicht direkte oder typische Folgen der erworbenen Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung repräsentieren. Rasch-Analysen haben gezeigt, dass diese Items nicht zu den vorhergehenden Items passen, um ein Messinstrument für das Outcome nach Hirnverletzung zu definieren. Trotzdem stellen dies sechs Items wichtige Faktoren dar, die bei der Planung von Rehabilitations- oder anderen Mal3nahmen für Menschen mit Hirnverletzung berücksichtigt werden sollten. Die Anwesenheit einer dieser Faktoren zeigt möglicherweise an, dass die zu bewertende Person eine intensivere /ausgedehntere Rehabilitationsmal3nahme benötigt (z.B. eine Person, die Beides hat eine Querschnittslähmung und ein Schädel-Hirn-Trauma), spezielle Supervision benötigt (eine Person mit Alzheimer Erkrankung, die zusätzlich ein Schädel-Hirn-Trauma erlitten hat) oder zusätzliche Behandlung braucht ( eine Person mit prämorbiden Drogenproblemen oder zusätzlichen psychiatrischen Nebenerkrankungen). Weil es häufig schwierig oder unmöglich ist, die funktionellen Fähigkeiten vor dem Ereignis genau zu bestimmen, werden Vergleiche mit dem prämorbidem Status in den 29 Items zur Messung des Outcomes von Schädel-Hirn-Verletzten vermieden.

Dennoch sollten diese zusätzlichen Items nach Möglichkeit Beides bewerten, den prämorbiden Zustand und denjenigen nach dem Ereignis, die Bewertung kann eine wichtige Entscheidungsgrundlage zur Bestimmung von Behandlungsempfehlungen darstellen.

30. Alkohol

Alkoholkonsum: Konsum von alkoholischen Getränken sowohl vor, als auch nach dem Ereignis: Obwohl die absolute Menge des Alkoholkonsums möglicherweise ein Faktor ist, um zu bestimmen ob der Konsum ein Problem darstellt, ist der primäre Faktor das Maß in wie fern Alkoholkonsum mit dem Funktionieren in alltäglichen Abläufen oder Erfüllen der Anforderungen an die soziale Rolle interferiert oder medizinisch kontra indiziert ist; z.B. trinkt eine Person ein oder zwei „Drinks“ jeden Tag ohne unerwünschte medizinische oder soziale Auswirkungen; eine andere Person hingegen erlebt möglicherweise negative Effekte oder setzt sich einem gesundheitlichem Risiko bei gelegentlichem Trinken aus.

0 = Der Alkoholkonsum ist mit keinem medizinischem Risiko verbunden und hat keine negativen Konsequenzen.

1 = Auf diesem Level trinken Personen gelegentlich zu viel Alkohol oder „besaufen“ sich (englische Originalversion: binge drinking), aber nicht in einem wiederkehrenden Muster. Das Trinken ist nicht mit einem medizinischem Risiko verknüpft und resultiert nicht in negativen Konsequenzen für sich selbst oder nahe stehenden Personen. Die betroffenen Personen, die eine Vorgeschichte in Bezug auf Mißbrauch oder Abhängigkeit haben und z.Zt. „nüchtern“ und „trocken“ unter aktiver Behandlung sind, werden auch auf dieser Ebene bewertet. Für regelmäl3ig zu viel Konsumierende / aktive Trinker sind angemessene Interventionen aufklärend, unterstützend oder zielen auf die primäre Störung wie Angst, Depression, Eheprobleme, die zum Mil3brauch beitragen.

2 = Es besteht ein starker Verdacht, dal3 übermäl3iger Konsum oder sich „besaufen“ relativ häufig vorkommt und mit Pflichten der sozialen Rolle interferiert. Das Muster des Alkoholkonsums führt zu Vermutungen/ Bedenken über eine mögliche Abhängigkeit und empfiehlt weitere Evaluation für eine mögliche Behandlung.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

3 = Es besteht ein klares Muster von Abhängigkeit oder sich „besaufen“, das weitere ambulante Behandlung oder andere organisierte Interventionen notwendig macht.

4 = Es gibt ein klares Muster von Abhängigkeit oder sich „besaufen“, ambulante oder stationäre Behandlung ist notwendig.

31. Drogen

Drogenkonsum: Gebrauch von illegalen Drogen oder Mißbrauch von verschreibungs-pflichtigen Medikamenten sowohl vor als auch nach der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung. Wie beim Alkoholkonsum ist das Maß in wie weit der Drogenkonsum mit dem Funktionieren in alltäglichen Abläufen / Erfüllen der Anforderungen an die soziale Rolle interferiert ein wichtiger Faktor. Allerdings wird jeder Gebrauch von illegalen Drogen oder verschreibungspflichtigen Drogen, neben den medizinisch empfohlenen

Medikamenten, als Problem betrachtet.

0 = Kein Gebrauch von illegalen Drogen , verschreibungspflichtige Medikamente werden gemäl3 der ärztlichen /medizinischen Verordnung eingenommen. Einige Personen nehmen verschreibungspflichtige Medikamente gemäß der medizinischen Verordnung ein, entwickeln aber offensichtlich ein manipulatives System, um diese Medikamente zu erhalten (z. B. erhalten sie mehrere Verordnungen / Rezepte von mehreren Ärzten für Benzodiazepin). Diese Personen werden mit diesem höheren Wert (1) bewertet, obwohl sie die Medikamente „entsprechend der Verordnung“ nehmen.

1 = Auf dieser Ebene konsumieren Personen gelegentlich, aber nicht regelmäl3ig illegale Drogen oder verschreibungspflichtige Medikamente. Der Gebrauch ist nicht assoziiert mit einem medizinischem Risiko und führt nicht zu negativen Konsequenzen für die Person selber oder nahe stehenden Menschen. Beispiele dafür sind Teenager, die gelegentlich Marihuana nehmen oder Personen, die gelegentlich eine extra Dosis Tranquilizer in Streßsituationen einnehmen oder aber Personen mit einer Vorgeschichte von Drogenmißbrauch oder Abhängigkeit, diese betroffenen Personen, die eine Vorgeschichte in Bezug auf Mißbrauch oder Abhängigkeit haben und z.Zt. keine Drogen unter aktiver Behandlung nehmen werden auch auf dieser Ebene bewertet. Für Drogenkonsumierende sind gewöhnlich angemessene Interventionen, aufklärend, unterstützend oder zielen auf die primäre Störung wie Angst, Depression, Eheprobleme, die zum Mißbrauch beitragen.

2 = Es besteht ein starker Verdacht, auf den Konsum illegaler Drogen oder auf möglichen Mil3brauch verschreibungspflichtiger Medikamente, der relativ häufig vorkommt und mit den Aktivitäten entsprechend der sozialen Rolle interferiert. Eine mögliche Abhängigkeit wird befürchtet. Weitere Evaluation/Untersuchung für eine mögliche Behandlung wird empfohlen.

3 = Es besteht ein klares Muster von Abhängigkeit oder Mil3brauch, weitere ambulante Behandlung oder andere organisierte Interventionen sind notwendig.

4 = Es gibt ein klares Muster von Abhängigkeit oder Mißbrauch, das ambulante oder stationäre Behandlung notwendig macht.

32. Psychotische Symptome

Halluzinationen, Wahnvorstellung oder andere starke Realitätsstörungen. Das Ausmaß in welchem diesem Symptome vor dem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma bestanden haben und wie präsent sie danach sind, soll bewertet werden. Diese Kategorie ist eher für klassische psychiatrische Symptome gedacht und wird nicht bei Wahrnehmungsstörung oder geringe Erfassung der Realität /wenig realistische Einschätzung (englische Originalversion: poor conceptualizations of reality) angewendet, die primär auf kognitiven Beeinträchtigen oder gestörter Awareness aufgrund der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung beruhen. Diese sollten unter den entsprechenden MPAI Items bewertet werden. Symptome in dieser Kategorie sind typischerweise mit einer psychiatrischen Diagnose aus dem „Schizophrenie-Spektrum“, paranoider oder schwerer Borderline Störung assoziiert. In seltenen Fällen, scheinen diese Symptome aus der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung zu resultieren und

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

können nicht vollständig durch kognitive Beeinträchtigungen erklärt werden, die vorher bewertet wurden.

0 = keine Symptome.

1 = Symptome sind möglicherweise schon vor der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung aufgetreten oder treten erst danach auf, aber sie sind durch gegenwärtige Behandlung kontrollierbar oder herabgesetzt. Auf diesem Level erscheinen Symptome möglicherweise, aber sie interferieren nicht mit dem Funktionieren im Tagesablauf. Personen auf dieser Ebene halten z.B. an einer fixen Idee fest, etwa dal3 Marsmenschen in den Körpern aller höheren Regierungsbeamter stecken, aber sie erkennen, dal3 niemand Anderes dieses glaubt und behalten deshalb ihre Meinung für sich, weil andere Personen sie für verrückt erklären würden, wenn sie darüber reden würden.

2 = Symptome erscheinen gelegentlich und interferieren sehr selten mit sozialen Beziehungen oder den Pflichten der sozialen Rolle. Die Symptome werden aber durch gegenwärtige Behandlung / Therapie gut bewältigt und erfordern keine zusätzliche Untersuchung oder Behandlungsmal3nahmen.

3 = Symptome treten häufig oder so stark auf, dal3 sie signifikant mit sozialen Beziehungen oder den Pflichten der sozialen Rolle interferieren. Weitere Untersuchung oder Behandlung sind notwendig.

4 = Symptome sind stark ausgeprägt und akut und erfordern stationäre Behandlung. Typischerweise auf diesem Level stellen die Personen ein substantielles Risiko für sich oder Andere dar.

33. Gesetzesbrüche

Ereignisse strafrechtlicher Verurteilung für Gesetzesbrüche vor oder nach der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung.

0 = Keine Gesetzesbrüche oder Verurteilungen nur kleinere Verkehrsdelikte wie seltene Geschwindigkeitsübertretungen oder Parkdelikte.

1 = Nicht mehr als zwei Verurteilungen wegen anderer als nur kleinere Verkehrsdelikte. wie seltene Geschwindigkeitsübertretungen oder Parkdelikte.

2 = Mehr als zwei Verurteilungen wegen anderer als nur kleinere Verkehrsdelikte.

3 = Ein einzige Straftat.

4 = Viele Straftaten.

34. Andere zusätzliche Konditionen, die physische

Beeinträchtigungen hervorrufen

Körperliche Effekte oder andere Bedingungen, die schon vor der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung vorhanden waren, aus anderen Unfällen (nicht aus dem oder einem anderen Schädel-Hirn-Trauma) resultieren oder nach dem Trauma auftraten. Beispiele sind Querschnittslähmungen / Rückenmarksverletzungen, Amputationen oder andere Erkrankungen oder Konditionen, die zu körperlichen Beeinträchtigungen führen. Die körperliche Beeinträchtigung sollte kein direktes oder indirektes Ergebnis der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung / des Schädel-Hirn-Traumas sein. Z.B. sollte eine Beeinträchtigung, die mit „Schlaganfall“ aufgrund der Hirnverletzung assoziiert ist (das heil3t Unterbrechung der zerebralen Blutzufuhr) unter dem entsprechendem Item der 29 ersten Items des MPAI bewertet werden und nicht zusätzlich hier. Falls die Person einen Schlaganfall vor oder nach der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung hatte, sollten die körperlichen Beeinträchtigungen, die aus dem Ereignis resultieren hier bewertet werden. Das generelle Ausmal3 dieses zusätzlichen Ereignisses oder der Krankheit auf die körperliche Funktionsfähigkeit von Beidem, vor und nach dem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma, wird auf der Standard Skala gewertet, die zur Bewertung der Funktionsstörung im MPAI verwendet wird.

0 = Keine körperlichen Probleme oder Schwierigkeiten aufgrund einer Verletzung, die keine Hirnverletzung war.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)


Mayo-Portland Adaptability Inventory, MD Lezak and JF Malec

1 = Körperliche Beeinträchtigungen sind vorhanden aber sie interferieren nicht mit dem Funktionieren im Tagesablauf. Personen auf diesem Level nehmen möglicherweise Medikamente oder verwenden Hilfsmittel, um das Problem zu kompensieren.

2 = Körperliche Beeinträchtigungen interferieren einige aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit mit Aktivitäten und dem Funktionieren im Tagesablauf. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung körperlicher Aktivitäten in weniger als 25 % der Zeit.

3 = Körperliche Beeinträchtigungen interferieren mit Aktivitäten die Mehrheit der Zeit. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung körperlicher Aktivitäten in 25 –75 % der Zeit.

4 = Körperliche Beeinträchtigungen interferieren mit allen oder fast allen Aktivitäten. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung körperlicher Aktivitäten in mehr als 75 % der Zeit.

35. Andere zusätzliche Konditionen, die kognitive Beeinträchtigungen hervorrufen

Kognitive Effekte oder andere Bedingungen, die schon vor der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung vorhanden waren, aus anderen Unfällen (keine Hirnverletzung) resultieren oder nach dem Ereignis auftraten. Beispiele sind Alzheimer Krankheit oder andere Demenzen, Sauerstoffmangel, oder viele andere Erkrankungen oder Konditionen, die zu kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen führen. Die kognitive Beeinträchtigung sollte kein direktes oder indirektes Ergebnis der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung sein; z.B. sollte eine Beeinträchtigung, die mit Sauerstoffmangel assoziiert ist der während des Schädel-Hirn-Traumas auftrat, hier nur dann bewertet werden, wenn angenommen wird, dass ein Herz-Kreislauf-Stillstand zu kognitiven Problemen führt, die offensichtlich größer sind, als durch das Schädel-Hirn-Trauma allein entstandene kognitiven Defizite. Wenn Unsicherheit besteht, werden die kognitiven Defizite als Folge der Schädel-Hirn-Verletzung und nicht zusätzlich hier bewertet. Dieses Item wurde eingeschlossen, um die Personen zu identifizieren, die eindeutig eine andere Beeinträchtigung des Gehirns haben, die zu kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen führt und in vielen Fällen der primäre Verursacher der kognitiven Defizite ist. Ein Beispiel ist eine Person, die in einem Pflegeheim für Alzheimerkranke vor dem Unfall lebte und sich ein mildes Schädel-Hirn-Trauma aufgrund eines Sturzes zuzieht und nun in das Pflegeheim mit den im Wesentlichen gleichen Level von kognitiven Beeinträchtigungen wie vor dem Unfall zurückkehrt. Das generelle Beeinträchtigungsausmaß dieses zusätzlichen Ereignisses oder der Krankheit sowohl vor als auch nach dem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma, wird auf der Standard Skala bewertet, die beim Einschätzen der Störungen im MPAI benutzt wird:

0 = Keine kognitiven Probleme oder Schwierigkeiten aufgrund von Konditionen, die nicht im Zusammenhang mit dem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma stehen.

1 = Kognitive Beeinträchtigungen sind vorhanden, aber sie interferieren nicht mit dem Funktionieren im Tagesablauf. Personen auf diesem Level nehmen möglicherweise Medikamente oder verwenden Hilfsmittel, um das Problem zu kompensieren.

2 = Kognitive Beeinträchtigungen interferieren einige aber nicht die Mehrheit der Zeit mit Aktivitäten und dem Funktionieren im Tagesablauf. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung kognitiver Aktivitäten oder der Kommunikation in weniger als 25 % der Zeit.

3 = Kognitive Beeinträchtigungen interferieren mit Aktivitäten die Mehrheit der Zeit. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung kognitiver Aktivitäten oder Kommunikation in 25 –75 % der Zeit.

4 = Kognitive Beeinträchtigungen interferieren mit allen oder fast allen Aktivitäten. Personen auf diesem Level benötigen Unterstützung in der Ausführung kognitiver Aktivitäten oder Kommunikation in mehr als 75 % der Zeit.

Translated by © Claudia Pott – Praxis Prof. Fries (München)



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Banks were early adopters, but now the range of applications and organizations using predictive analytics successfully have multiplied:

* Direct marketing and sales. Leads coming in from a company’s website can be scored to determine the probability of a sale and to set the proper follow-up priority. Campaigns can be targeted to the candidates most likely to respond.

* Customer relationships. Customer characteristics and behavior are strongly predictive of attrition (e.g., mobile phone contracts and credit cards). Attrition or “churn” models help companies set strategies to reduce churn rates via communications and special offers.

* Pricing optimization. With sufficient data, the relationship between demand and price can be modeled for any product and then used to determine the best pricing strategy. Analytical pricing and revenue management are used extensively in the air travel, hospitality, consumer packaged goods and retail banking sectors and are starting to enter new domains such as toll roads and retail e-commerce.

* Health outcomes. Models connecting symptoms and treatments to outcomes are seeing wider use by providers. For example, a model can predict the likelihood that a patient presenting a certain set of symptoms is actually suffering a heart attack, helping ER staff determine treatment and urgency.

* Insurance fraud. Many types of fraud have predictable patterns and can be identified using statistical models for the purpose of prevention or for after-the-fact investigation and recovery.

* Improper public benefits payments and fraud. Health, welfare, unemployment, housing and other benefits are sometimes paid when they should not be, wasting taxpayers’ money and making benefits less available to those who deserve them. Models similar to those used in insurance fraud help prevent and recover these losses.

* Tax collections. Likely cases of additional tax owed (due to non-filers,

underreporting and inflated refunds) can be identified. The IRS and many state governments use revenue collection models and are continually improving them.

* Predicting and preventing street crime, domestic abuse and terrorism. In addition to link analysis techniques for investigating crimes, predictive models help determine high-risk situations and hotspots for preventive action.


2




BUILDING EFFECTIVE PREDICTIVE MODELS

Predictive models require data. Building, testing and refining these models require data that describes 1) what’s known at the time a prediction needs to be made, and 2) the eventual outcome. For example, to develop a model for heart attack risk presented by patients coming into the ER, we’d need to have data describing patient symptoms when they arrived, and then the subsequent outcome (were they suffering a heart attack or not). The ability to generate data with these characteristics is a critical factor in the success of a predictive modeling application.

Statistical techniques, such as linear regression and neural networks, are then applied to identify predictors and calculate the actual models. Software from the SAS Institute, IBM’s SPSS, and the open-source statistical toolset “R” are often used for this modeling analysis step.

After assembling the data, the analysts may find 20 predictive factors that are known for each patient (in our ER example) and assign weights to them using statistical software (e.g., +50 points for abnormally low blood pressure). The statistical software uses algorithms to optimize the model weighting factors, so that the combination produces the most accurate predictions possible with the available data.

The resulting “score,” combining all the factors and their weights, will be an effective risk index that can be used as a decision criterion along with other rules for patient treatment. The score will be not only correlated with cardiac risk, but can be calibrated to have a specific mathematical relationship. This is a crucial advantage; it takes this risk from being an “unknown unknown” to a “known unknown” or, in other words, a calculated risk.

HIGH-VALUE APPLICATIONS FOR PREDICTIVE MODELING

Most business processes in most organizations have the potential to benefit from predictive modeling. That said, there are certain situations where predictive models can be especially beneficial in delivering a great deal of value:

* Processes that require a large number of similar decisions

* Where the outcomes have a significant impact, i.e., where there’s a lot at stake in terms of money or lives

* Where there’s abundant information in electronic data form available on which to base decisions and measure outcomes

* Where it’s possible to insert a model calculation into the actual business process, either to automate decisions or to support human decision makers

Credit scoring meets the criteria for high-value application:

* There is a steady stream of loan requests accompanied by information about the borrowers

* The result of each decision has a big financial impact and is captured in loan accounting systems

* The models fit into the loan decision processes in a logical way to support human decisions

So does assessing cardiac risk:

* Patient symptoms are now captured in electronic health records, as are diagnoses and subsequent outcomes

* Decisions about treatment have life-or-death implications

* It’s possible to use a model to guide immediate treatment decisions once the patient’s information is entered when they come in to the ER.


3




CALCULATING THE ROI OF PREDICTIVE ANALYTICS

In many cases, it’s possible to measure the potential benefits and even estimate the return on investment of a predictive model using a simple method—the swap set. As shown in the table below, the swap set is the set of improved decisions made possible by a predictive model.

An example application are sales leads coming into a company’s website. Once received, the leads are either assigned to one of the inside sales representatives for immediate follow up, or they receive an automated email response.

The company wants to increase sales with the same staffing level, so it develops a predictive model to measure the probability of a lead converting to a sale. The assignment rules are changed to incorporate the model by assigning high-probability leads to the sales reps. The swap set compares the results of the former assignment logic, which was based on intuitive logic, with the new model-driven logic. The result is an increase of $200,000 per month.

Existing processes (predictive-model supported process)

Assigned to rep

Email only

Total leads

Assigned to rep

1,000 leads

1,000 leads

2,000 leads




$1,000,000 sales

Email only

1,000 leads

7,000 leads

8,000 leads




$500,000 sales

Total leads

2,000 leads

8,000 leads

10,000 leads


$700,000 sales

$600,000 sales

$1,500,000 sales (model)




$1,300,000 sales (former)




+$200,000 from scoring


Swap set illustration for sales lead scoring example. Use of a lead assignment model results in different treatment decisions compared to what would have been decided previously, and generates improved results with equal sales cost.

PREDICTIVE MODELING TRENDS

The biggest set of changes and advances in predictive modeling are coming about as a result of the explosion in unstructured data—text documents, video, voice and images— accompanied by rapidly improving analytical techniques. In a nutshell, predictive modeling requires structured information—the kind found in relational databases. To make unstructured data sets useful for this kind of analysis, structured information must be extracted from them first.

One example is sentiment analysis from Web posts. Information can be found in customer posts on forums, blogs and other sources that predict customer satisfaction and sales trends for new products. It would be nearly impossible, however, to try to build a predictive model directly from the text in the posts themselves. An extraction step is needed to get usable information in the form of keywords, phrases and meaning from the text in the posts, as shown in the graphic below. Then, it’s possible to look for the correlation between instances of the phrase “problems with the product”, for example, and spikes in customer service calls.

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Analysis, model

fitting and

adjustment

Illustration of information flow and process for a sentiment analysis application

Every form of unstructured data (e.g., text, images, video and sound) is accompanied by a set of extraction techniques that enable usable information to be pulled out of the raw data and used for analysis, including predictive modeling. With that step taken, the principles for finding high-value applications of predictive modeling are the same for unstructured as for structured information: high-value decisions, data in computerized form on both outcomes and potential predictors, and a way to insert a model into the actual decision process.

CONCLUSION

CGI’s viewpoint is that predictive models provide an extremely effective way to get more value from data, and they have a wide range of applications that have not come even close to being fully exploited yet. The Big Data phenomenon will only increase the number of high-value uses for predictive modeling in government and industry.

At the same time, predictive analytics are not appropriate or even feasible for all applications. As with any powerful technology, care must be taken to implement predictive models pragmatically in ways that produce real value.

An important challenge to greater adoption is that the talent needed to analyze data, create models and implement them successfully is in short supply. Organizations looking to get more value from the their data assets through predictive analytics will be wise to invest in analytical training and mentoring programs, along with the expertise of partner firms.

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School of International Studies

Jawaharlal Nehru University

New Delhi

RESEARCH MANUAL

(For MPhil/ PhD Students)

May 2006







Acknowledgement

There was a long felt need for revision of the School’s Research Manual. The then Dean, Professor R R Sharma, set up a committee to revise the manual. After more than a year’s deliberations, the new manual is ready.

I am grateful to all members of the committee – Professor Amit Shovon Ray, Professor Varun Sahni, Professor Madhu Bhalla, Dr Gulshan Sachdeva, Dr Ummu Salma Bava, Dr V G Hegde and Dr Siddharth Mallavarapu. They spent long hours preparing this document. We gratefully acknowledge extensive comments on earlier drafts received particularly from Professor I. N. Mukherjee, Professor C.S.R. Murthy, Dr P.R. Kumaraswamy and Dr Varaprasad.

In preparing this document, Gordon Harvey’s “Writing with Sources: A Guide for

Harvard Students”, Harvard University, 1995.

(http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/) and an online dictionary “Answers.com” (http://www.answers.com/Plagiarism) were found very useful.

Manmohan Agarwal

Dean, School of International Studies


Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

CONTENTS 2

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH MANDATE AND CHALLENGES 3

BROAD MANDATE AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH AT SIS 3

CHALLENGES OF AREA STUDIES RESEARCH AT SIS 3

The nature and direction of Area Studies 3

The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS 4

Is Area Studies multidisciplinary? 4

The use and misuse of history 5

Language Proficiency 5

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH DESIGN 6

METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND SOURCES 6

VARIABLES 6

SOME USEFUL DISTINCTIONS 7

Objectivity and Subjectivity 7

Description and Explanation 7

Induction and Deduction 8

AN IDEAL RESEARCH DESIGN 8

CHAPTER 3: PHD SYNOPSIS 10

CHAPTER 4: STYLE 11

LAYOUT, FONT AND STRUCTURE 11

CITATION 11

In-text 12

Reference 12

USE OF FOOTNOTES 17

PLAGIARISM 17

APPENDIX 1: TITLE PAGE 19

APPENDIX 2: DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATE 20


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Chapter 1: Research Mandate and Challenges Broad Mandate and Objectives of Research at SIS

Established in 1955, the School of International Studies is the oldest school of the University. During the fifty years of its existence, the School has established itself as one of the premier institutions in the country for the study of International Relations (focusing on facets of Politics, Economics and Law) and Area Studies.

The research mandate of SIS may be broadly categorised as:

* Understanding the world

* Understanding systems, institutions and processes

* Understanding India in a global context

* Understanding India's interaction with the world

In selecting a topic for MPhil/PhD research, students should try to locate her/his research problem in one or more of the above domains.

We encourage:

* Empirical research that is theoretically informed

* Theoretical research that is empirically grounded

* Pure theoretical research

Challenges of Area Studies Research at SIS

The School is the first institution in the country to promote “Area Studies” and to develop expertise on various countries and regions of the world. The challenges of area studies research at SIS can be discussed under the following heads:

* The nature and direction of Area Studies

* The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS

* The indispensability of multidisciplinary approaches

* The value of history as method and as narrative

* Language Proficiency

The nature and direction of Area Studies 

Areas Studies in India was conceived as an arm of policy making and the orientation of research has been linked, on the whole, to studying aspects of other states or international institutions that have an impact on India’s foreign policy and strategic interests.

However, the end of the Cold War and the emerging imperatives of globalization have forced scholars to rethink notions of areas, constituencies and objectives of Area Studies. Moreover, the emergence of developing country scholarship in the social sciences has allowed Area Studies scholars to use locally relevant concepts such as


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caste, lineage, guanxi and diaspora capitalism to understand social and political transformations that are central to contemporary concerns in these regions.

Indeed, if Area Studies is to remain relevant, it must, in the light of the above developments, adhere to the following broad framework:

* Conceptualize areas not just as nations or states but also as regions, or even as functional parts of the world system;

* Redefine the idea of “strategic interests” as including transformations in demography, livelihood, and political structures within and across nations and not just issues related to conventional aspects of conflict;

* Widen the constituency of area studies scholarship to include a range of new actors and decision-makers;

* Enhance one’s familiarity with indigenous scholarship and set up comparative approaches to area studies issues to overcome the problem of imposing culturally and politically contextualized concepts and frameworks.

The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS

Scholarship in Area Studies has often been event driven and much less oriented towards problems and issues that have a long term relevance to national and regional interests. But scholarship in Area Studies, even if event-driven, must relate to contemporary problems and issues and provide a perspective that makes the discussion meaningful. To this end it must develop, use and test theory to frame the issues with which Area Studies engage.

There are distinctive advantages to an effective use of theory in Area Studies scholarship:

* As an analytical tool, the use of theory enables scholars to raise new questions about a problem, present perspectives and be rigorous in research (for instance, theories of globalisation and culture can give us new insights into the formation of Diaspora).

* Testing a theory, or a conceptual framework, also enables scholars to reaffirm or challenge received notions about an issue or a problem, often opening up the possibility of developing better analytical tools to comprehend significant issues (for instance, the debate on democracy and development in the context of the rise of China).

* Theory enables scholars to be self conscious about the intellectual or political premises of their scholarship.

Is Area Studies multidisciplinary?

Most scholars in the field of Area Studies come equipped with training in their respective disciplines. This has often been cited to describe area studies as multidisciplinary.

Yet, the presence of a host of scholars from different disciplines does not make the field multidisciplinary, unless scholarship provides evidence of the use of concepts and theoretical concerns that cut across disciplines, for example, political science and


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economics, or, Indian contributions to development economics and Japanese scholarship in sociology.

There are advantages of having a truly multidisciplinary approach to Area Studies issues given the wide range of issues that often become factors or variables in any contemporary issue. For example, any study of diaspora communities as a factor in foreign or security policy must take from scholarship in demographic studies, sociology as well as economics and history. Multidisciplinary approaches also often lead to the discovery of comparative studies of an issue which may present radically new perspectives on old issues. For example, studies on the Chinese diaspora have led scholars to review the significance of Indian diaspora communities, studies of which had earlier been cast entirely in a historical mould. In this context, comparative studies enable scholars to combine the best scholarship from other nations and regions with their own interests.

The use and misuse of history

One of the peculiar aspects of Indian Area Studies scholarship is the presence of at least one mandatory chapter on the history of the problem/country being researched. Often a second is smuggled in disguised as the “Introduction”. While the objective of the practice was well intentioned — to contextualize, and so ground, the problem in the history of the state – the effect of the practice has been to undermine analysis in favour of narrative.

To overcome this reliance on narrative, while retaining the objective of the practice, researchers need to differentiate between history as background and history as interpretation. Therefore, scholars must not just collect historical facts but also tell us what they make of them in relation to the problem they want to research. Thus, for example, it is less important to recount in detail the history of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia than it is to discuss aspects of it that threaten the security of the state or the people. Or even, the debate that Indonesian historians have set up on Dutch colonialism that is relevant to current concerns in Indonesia.

Periodisation is often used to set the limits of PhD research. In some cases, this is important, e.g., India’s economic performance post liberalisation: 1991-2004, or, India’s post-Pokhran II nuclear policy: 1998-2004. However, periodisation may not be essential for many research topics, especially when the research focus is theoretically inclined, e.g., China’s civil rights discourse and the reconstitution of minority identity. In such cases periodisation should be avoided as far as possible.

Language Proficiency

Area Studies research is critically dependent on knowledge of the area being researched. Without a command over the local language, such knowledge is difficult to acquire. Hence, a working knowledge of the relevant local language is an essential pre-requisite for Area Studies research.


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Chapter 2: Research Design

Designing a research project requires skill, which rarely comes without training, practice and sustained effort. While a few students may indeed have an innate ability at research design, it is perhaps best not to rely on your instincts alone to come up with a suitable research project. Research methodology – the study of research method – exists as a compulsory course in all M.Phil. programmes of the School precisely for this reason. You need to learn how research is conducted, and also how it ought to be conducted.

Methods, Techniques and Sources

A good starting point would be to distinguish between methods, techniques and sources, three terms that students often – and incorrectly – use as synonyms.

Methods relate to pathways; they answer the question ‘How should I proceed?’

Techniques cater to tools, or, in other words, to a ‘what’ question: ‘What should I use?’

Finally, sources are about locations; they provide answers to the question ‘Where should I look?’

Variables 

Research in the social sciences almost invariably involves the investigation of relationships between variables. In the natural sciences and in some of the social sciences, a variable is usually a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of an individual or a system. More generally, however, in the social sciences, we define a variable as a concept that can take on different values. A concept, incidentally, is an abstract, universal idea, notion or entity that serves to designate a category or class of entities, events or relations. Thus, ‘democracy’ and ‘truth’ are both concepts. However, ‘democracy’ is a variable because the level, type, quality or nature of democracy is likely to vary depending upon the political system that is being studied. ‘Truth’, on the other hand, is not a variable but a constant. This is because the terms ‘more truth’ and ‘less truth’ make no sense; we only have ‘truth’ and ‘untruth’.

At their most basic, there are two types of variables: independent variables and

dependent variables. For example:

If ‘a’, then ‘b’ [a ? b]

‘a’ is the independent variable;

‘b’ is the dependent variable.

Remember that you as a researcher are seeking to study the impact of ‘a’ upon ‘b’. You can, using several methods, alter the value of independent variables ‘a’ and study the impact of this change upon dependent variable ‘b’. In other words, independent variables are manipulated while dependent variables are measured and collected as data.


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To complicate matters further, we can include a third variable in the research design: a ? c ? b

‘a’ is the independent variable;

‘b’ is the dependent variable;

‘c’ is the intervening variable.

Without going into too much detail at this juncture, please note that through the use of ‘arrow diagrams’ such as the ones above we can delineate causal chains and isolate our study variable (the variable that is the focus of our study).

Some Useful Distinctions

Students are often confused between such distinctions as objectivity/subjectivity, description/explanation, and induction/deduction. Let us therefore examine these distinctions briefly.

Objectivity and Subjectivity

Objectivity involves the focus being upon that which is being viewed, and implies that the perspective does not alter depending upon the viewer; when the focus is on the viewer, and where it is understood that the perspective is viewer-dependent, subjectivity obtains. Please be aware that entire branches of knowledge can be differentiated on this basis, and that most disciplines are internally divided on such issues as the difference between metaphysical objectivity and epistemic objectivity. Whether ‘objective knowledge’ exists, or indeed can exist, is itself the subject of intense debate. It is nevertheless important that you understand the distinction between objectivity and subjectivity.

Description and Explanation

Considerably more important than the above is the distinction between description and explanation. Description is about capturing reality; all statements that answer the questions ‘Who?’, ‘What?’, When?’, ‘Where?’ and ‘How?’ are descriptive statements. Explanation, in contrast, is concerned with ordering reality; all explanatory statements answer the question ‘Why?’ You must understand that description, no matter how detailed and elegant, is not explanation; hence, the narrative cannot replace analysis. Description, by its very nature, thrives on detail: the greater the detail, the richer the description. The intellectual enterprise of explanation, in sharp contrast, involves not detail but simplicity: the more parsimonious the explanation, i.e., the fewer variables it involves, the better it is.1 The more parsimonious an explanation is, the more applicable it is likely to be in a wide variety of cases. This includes, obviously, future cases as well: thus, to explain is to predict.

There are, broadly speaking, three kinds of description:

1 Clearly some models may require more explanatory variables than others. But the important point to note here is that incorporating a large number of explanatory variables does not necessarily make your model more powerful.


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* The Case Study requires ‘thick description’ or ‘deep description’, or in other words the anthropological method. The idea is to study of a multitude of variables in a single case. The problem with the case study is that a case proves nothing but itself; no general conclusions can be drawn from the study of a singular case. One must, therefore, clearly identify the criteria for selecting the particular case being studied.

* The Comparative Study is a study of similarities and differences. In comparative studies, case and variable selection becomes all important. As a general rule, the cases ought to be sufficiently similar that comparison is warranted, and sufficiently different that comparison is fruitful.

* The Statistical Study involves “large n” description, i.e., the study of a few variables over a large number of cases. The biggest challenge in statistical studies is quantification or ‘operationalizing’ the variables, i.e., making the variables amenable to mathematical operations.

Induction and Deduction

The final distinction that is worth highlighting is that between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that takes one from the particular to the general. Thus, the opinion poll is based on the inductive method. The outcome of inductive reasoning is often novel but always uncertain. This is because of the ‘n+1 problem’: just because ‘x’ is true in ‘n’ cases does not guarantee that it will be true in the ‘n+1th’ case. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, is a form of reasoning in which, starting from certain general premises, a particular conclusion is reached. For ease of memory, this can be dubbed the ‘Sherlock Holmes method’: from a set of (general) clues the detective identifies the (specific) perpetrator of the crime. In deductive reasoning, as long as the premises are true, the outcome is necessarily true. By its very nature, deductive reasoning cannot throw up new data.

An Ideal Research Design

What should a well designed research project be based on? In brief, a good research project is a blend of innovative concepts, rigorous method and substantive content (Przeworski and Salomon, 1995). You need to ask yourself two tough questions: What’s new in my research project? What makes my research project worthwhile? The focus here is on value addition: that the outcome of the project will throw up/suggest/point toward something that we do not already know. Please remember that a good research paper always specifies at the very outset exactly how it is ‘adding value’. In this context, the utility of a bibliography (literature review) should be evident: it tells the reader what the ‘state of the art’ is, what we know and what we do not know.

What sort of research problems should a well designed project focus on? Essentially, it should be a research problem that falls under at least one of the following five categories:

* problems that have been understudied or ignored;

* problems with historical significance;


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* problems with contemporary relevance (but beware of being just one more contributor in an already crowded field);

* problems with theoretical or conceptual significance;

* problems that need to be revisited because of new evidence or perspectives.

As a good way to begin, you need to come up with the best way to set your problem. Problem setting means getting to the heart of the problem: stating it in a manner that catches the attention of the reader and makes its relevance self-evident. There are principally three ways of setting the problem:

* Posing a non-rhetorical question:

‘Could the LTTE survive without the active support of the Tamil diaspora?’

* Stating a falsifiable proposition:

‘Kashmir is a symptom, not a cause, of discord between India and Pakistan.’

* Focusing on apparently paradoxical data:

‘The percentage of women in the Iranian workforce has tripled after the

Islamic Revolution.’


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Chapter 3: PhD Synopsis

A student is expected to have a good comprehension of the existing literature in her/his chosen field of research before writing a synopsis. The length of the synopsis should ideally be around 12 pages (excluding bibliography) in A4 with Times New Roman Font 12 and 1.5 line spacing. The synopsis must follow the following structure:

Section 1: Background (2 pages) 

The student must briefly posit the broad context of her/his research problem.

Section 2: Review of the Literature (6 pages) 

The literature should be organised in a thematic structure and not as a listing of summaries of important references. Try to structure the literature review in a manner which highlights the issues relevant to your thesis and identify the gaps therein. Note that more than one corpus of literature might be of relevance to your study.

Section 3: Definition, Rationale and Scope of the Study (11/2 pages)

Based on the above critical survey of the relevant literature, you should clearly define the research puzzle that is being addressed and explain the rationale and scope of the study in this section.

Section 4: Research Problem/Question and Hypothesis (1 page)

Present a clear statement of your research problem in this section. Formulate your research questions bearing in mind a clear response to the “so-what?” question. This should be followed by a crisp and cogent statement of your research hypothesis posed in the form of a falsifiable proposition.

Section 5: Research Methods (1 page)

This section should contain a clear description of how the student intends to answer her/his research question(s). We expect a rigorous exposition of the research methods to be employed. Statements like “the study is descriptive/ analytical” will not suffice. In this section the student must also mention the sources of data and information required for the study.

Section 6: Tentative Chapters (1/2 page)

The student must give a list of tentative chapter headings with a brief description (not exceeding 2-3 lines) of the content of each chapter. The first and the last chapter must be called Introduction and Conclusion respectively.

Bibliography: 

All sources that may be relevant to your research should be listed in the style outlined

in the Chapter 4 (“Style”) of this manual.


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Chapter 4: Style

Layout, Font and Structure

The thesis must be printed on one side of A4 paper only, with a margin of 1.5 inches on the left-hand side of each page and 1 inch on the right side. The top and bottom margins should also be an inch.

The main text should be in Times New Roman Font 12 with 1.5 spacing. Long quotations (running over two sentences) should be single spaced and left indented. It is the candidate’s responsibility to ensure that the print of the thesis is clear and legible.

Use Indian (British) spellings rather than American spellings except in direct quotations, proper names and source titles. In other words, use “defence” and “labour” normally, but “U.S. Department of Defense” and “U.S. Department of Labor” when referring to these specific bureaucracies.

The thesis will have the following sequence of items

(1) Title page (sampled as appendix 1)

(2) Declaration and Certificate page (appendix 2)

(3) Acknowledgement (Try to make it brief and highlight academic contributions)

(4) Contents

(5) List of tables, figures, abbreviations (if applicable)

(6) Chapters of the thesis

(7) References

Chapter 1 should be called Introduction containing a clear exposition of the context and rationale of the study, the research question(s), an outline of the structure of the thesis. Chapter 2 should ideally consist of a detailed review of relevant theoretical and empirical literature. The final chapter should be called Conclusion and must briefly restate the research problem and summarise the main findings and implications of the study.

Citation

The purpose of citation is to indicate clearly the sources from which

(1) You rely on factual information or data.

(2) You need to quote verbatim.

(3) You use others’ ideas, interpretations, analyses or conclusions even if you summarize or paraphrase in your own language.

(4) You organize or structure your argument using somebody else’s distinctive structure, style or method.

(5) You state in passing another person's work.

When in doubt, cite – over-citation is better than under-citation. The key to effective citation is to give the reader enough information to locate the source in a clear and consistent manner.


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In-text

Among many recognized styles, we recommend the author-year style of in-text referencing, where you indicate in the text itself not only the name of the source author but also the year in which the source was published. The author's name may appear in the sentence itself or in parentheses; the year of publication always appears in parentheses.

The following example illustrates the style:

A key role of the state is said to be to regulate the conflicts between them in

order to realise ‘national interest’ (Miliband 1977).

OR

Miliband (1977) argues that a key role of the state is to regulate the conflicts

between them in order to realise ‘national interest’.

In case you are quoting or citing from a specific page or page range, use one of the following formats:

Mattoo and Subramanian expressed India’s position at Doha to be ‘characteristically but perhaps not unjustifiably defensive’, and recommended a proactive stance at future negotiations (Mattoo and Subramanian 2003: 328).

Once again, in a reverse manner, ethnic conflicts broke out in Bhutan in 1990 as a result of exclusivist Drupka ethno-nationalism, bent on turning Bhutan into a mono-ethnic polity (Baral 1996; Phadnis 1990: 39-40, 79-80, 125-129).

If, however, you have more than one author in your reference list with the same surname, then it is advisable to use the full name and year in parentheses whenever you are refereeing to these authors, e.g.

Debraj Ray (1998), Rajat Ray (1990).

If a source has two authors, mention all the names in the signal phrase in your sentence or put them in your parenthetic citation, e.g.,

Dasgupta and Stiglitz (1980) OR (Dasgupta and Stiglitz 1980)

If a source has more than two authors, use the first surname with et al. ("and others") in your citation.

Reference 

All author-year in text citations refer to an alphabetical list of "References" at the end of the thesis, whose format emphasizes date of publication. Note that it is a list of “references” and NOT a “bibliography”. Therefore, you should not include any source that is not cited either in the text or in the footnotes.

The format for the References must meet the following specifications:

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* Start your references on a new page, after the last page of your text. The references must be single spaced with a double space between them.

* List all your references (primary or secondary) alphabetically. Put an asterisk mark (*) against (at the beginning on the left side) of the primary sources as and when they appear in the list and mention this after the heading.

* Immediately before the consolidated list of references, students may append an alphabetised list of Primary Sources if their supervisor so requires.

REFERENCES 

(* indicates a primary source)

* Follow the following style for different types of references:

Books

Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title in italics, Place: Publisher.

Abraham, I. (1999), The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State, New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Articles or other work in a journal

Surname, First Names/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, Name of Journal in italics, vol (no): page numbers.

Arrow, K.J. (1962), “The Economic Implications of Learning by Doing”, Review of Economic Studies, 29 (3): 155-173.

Article, chapter, or work in an edited volume

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, in Names of Editors (eds.) Title of the edited volume, Place: Publisher.

Cox, Robert (1992), “Towards a Post-Hegemonic Conceptualisation of World Order: Reflections on the Relevancy of Ibn Khaldun”, in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel (eds.) Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Article in a newspaper or magazine

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, Newspaper, Place, Exact date [dd Month yyyy].

Chatterjee, Partha (1999), “Fragile Distinctions: Between Good and Bad Nationalism”, The Times of India, New Delhi, 20 August 1999.

Unpublished dissertation or paper

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Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title of thesis, Ph.D Thesis, Place: University.

Bhattacharya, Abanti (2004), Chinese Nationalism: The Impact on Policy, Ph.D. Thesis, New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University.

Translated book

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), Title of the Translated work, Name of Editor (ed) if any, Translated by Names of the Translators, Place: Publisher.

Borges, Jorge Luis (1999), Selected Non-Fictions, Elliot Weinberger (ed), Translated by E. Allen, S.J. Levine and E. Weinberger, New York: Penguin.

Government, International Organisations and NGO publications

Name of the Government/ International Organisation (year), Title, Publication Details (number etc) if any, Place.

Government of India (2005), Economic Survey 2004-2005, Ministry of Finance, New Delhi.

OR

Ministry of Commerce (2000), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 2 (12) December.

Ministry of Commerce (2001a), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, ‘India reaffirms position on WTO issues at Mexico meet’, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 3 (6-7), June-July: 3-9.

Ministry of Commerce (2001b), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, ‘India reaffirms position on WTO issues at Mexico meet’, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 3 (9), September.

World Bank (2003), World Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press: New York.

Congressional Hearings, I, (1999), US 106th Congress, Session 1st, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings, The Taiwan Security Enhancement Act, August 4, 1999 (US Government Printing Office: Washington. DC).

Legal case

List cases by title; give volume number and abbreviated name of reporting service, starting page-number in the volume, court that decided the case, and year.

Examples:

Document/agreement obtained from the United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS):


Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, (1951), 82 UNTS 280.

Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949 Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, (1950), 75 UNTS 135.

United Nations Documents like General Assembly Resolutions/ Security Council Resolutions:

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Year), UN Doc A/CONF.183/9. Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993) UN Doc. S/RES/827, annex.

Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda (1994), UN Doc. S/RES/955, annex.

GA Res. (Year), 217 A (III), UN Doc. A/810 (the reference to this GA Resolution and the text etc. would be there in the main text).

Decisions of the International Court of Justice:

Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, (1996), ICJ Reports, 226, para. 70

LeGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, (1999), ICJ Reports 1, para. 29.

GATT Document in the Basic Instruments and Selected Documents

Agreement on the Interpretation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT, BISD 26 Supp. 171 (1980).

WTO cases

United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, Appellate

Body Report and Panel Report, WTO Document WTO/DS2/9 of 20 May 1996.

Indian Supreme Court (SC)/High Court cases reported in the All India Reporter (AIR).

Lallubhai Chakubhai Jariwalala vs. Samaldas Sankalchand Shah, AIR, 1934 Bom.

407.

Mahendra Verma vs. Rajendra Verma, AIR 1999 SC 3345.

Some Variants

Two authors

Bhagwati, J and P. Desai (1970), India: Planning for Industrialisation, London:

Oxford University press.

Three or more authors

Judge, G.G. et al. (1985), The Theory and Practice of Econometrics, New York: John

Wiley & Sons.

Reprinted book

Schumpeter, J.A. (1954), History of Economic Analysis, New York: Oxford

University Press, reprinted 1976.


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Book in several volumes

Chenery, H. and T.N. Srinivasan (eds) (1988), Handbook of Development Economics,

Vol. I, Amsterdam: North Holland.

Indirect Source

For a source you know only as it is quoted or cited by another scholar, give full publication data for the original source and for the other scholar, linked by the phrase "quoted in" or “cited in."

Levi-Strauss, C. (1969) The Raw and the Cooked: An Introduction to a Science of Mythology. New York: Harper & Row. Quoted in Howard Gardner (1983), Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, New York: Basic Books.

Internet Sources

Brin, D. (1993), “The good and the bad: Outlines of tomorrow”, [Online: web] Accessed 5 Sept. 1995 URL: http://kspace.com/ KM/spot.sys/Brin/pages/piece1.html.

Harvey, G. (1995), Writing with Sources: A Guide for Harvard Students, Gordon Expository Writing Program, Harvard University, [Online: web] Accessed 15 May 2005, URL: http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/.

ICTSD (2004), International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (Geneva), “India Submits Cautious Services Offer”, BRIDGES Weekly Trade News Digest, 8 (3), 28 January: 4-5, URL: http://www.ictsd.org/weekly/04-01-28/BRIDGESWeekly8-03.pdf.

IFATPC (2004), International Food and Agricultural Trade Policy Council, “Twenty-Five Ways to Improve the Derbez Draft on Agriculture”, 10 February, URL: http://www.agritrade.org/Doha/Derbez/Assessment%20Paper.pdf.

Przeworski, Adam and Frank Salomon (1995), “The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions”, New York: Social Science Research Council, revised 1998, [Online:

web] Accessed 3 February 2006, URL:

http://www.ssrc.org/fellowships/art_of_writing_proposals.page.

Class lecture, conference paper, speech, or performance

Lal, Deepak (2005), “Globalizing Capitalism”, Lecture delivered on 19 April 2005 at the Centre for International Trade and Development, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University: New Delhi.

Prior to citing lectures and conference papers, ensure that the author has not specified that the lecture/paper is not for citation.

Personal or phone interview, letter or e-mail

16


Agarwal, M.L. (2005), e-mail to the author, 5 April 2005.

Weeramantry, C.G. (2000), personal interview, Baudholoka Mawatha, Colombo, 28

April 2000.

A document authenticating the content of the interview is mandatory. Use of Footnotes

You will occasionally want to tell the examiner/reader something that neither directly advances your argument nor acknowledges or documents a source. For this you use a discursive footnote. Example:

It has often been argued that economic reforms in India have been carried out within the framework of long drawn democratic processes.1

1 There is, however, a minority view that Indian economic reforms have scuttled democratic processes by adopting tactical and clandestine, though legitimate, strategies. (Jenkins 1999)

Sometimes, you may need to use a footnote to elaborate the nuances of an argument without disrupting the flow in the main text. Example:

The tightening of monetary policy and reduction of the fiscal deficit through strict control of expenditures required under the IMF structural adjustment programme are deflationary.1

1 While the programmes of the IMF are only applicable to countries borrowing from it, developing and transitional economies, there has been a broad move towards restricting fiscal deficits, e.g., the Maastricht Treaty requirements, and increasingly independence of the Central Banks, with very often the sole specified goal of reducing inflation.

Use footnotes only when the note is really interesting and relevant enough to mention.

Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of each page (single spaced) with footnote numbers appearing in the text in superscript (Times New Roman, font 10).

Plagiarism

Plagiarism refers to the use of another's ideas, information, language, or writing, as one’s own without proper citation of the original source. This is a very serious academic offence that may ruin your entire academic career. People have even lost their jobs on charges of plagiarism. This indicates the gravity of the offence.

We would like to dispel some of the misconceptions regarding plagiarism.

* It is a misnomer that plagiarism only refers to verbatim reproduction from a source without citation. Even if you paraphrase, summarise or otherwise use an idea, information, interpretation or analysis from another source without citation, it is plagiarism.


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* Use of “common knowledge” factual information does not constitute plagiarism, e.g., Bamako is the Capital of Mali. If you are unsure whether the information you are using is “common knowledge”, it is always advisable to cite the source.

* Plagiarism always involves an element of dishonesty. Even if you plagiarise inadvertently, you are liable.

* It is conceivable that two or more unrelated people working in different parts of the world come up with exactly the same idea/analysis at the same point in time. This would not constitute plagiarism. However, this is a very rare coincidence. It is possible that close to the conclusion of your thesis, you may discover that your idea overlaps with that of a recent publication. Don’t get alarmed and don’t pretend to ignore the source. Be candid in citing it as supportive of your thesis. Remember that no two ideas/ analyses are likely to be mirror images of each other. Please do not treat this recent reference as undermining the value of your research.

* When you get an idea/ comment from another person in the course of discussions and you use that in your research, you must acknowledge. Likewise, if you use an idea jointly conceived by a research team (that includes you), you can not pretend to present it in your work as your own idea. In both cases, citation is a must; else you commit plagiarism.


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APPENDIX 1: Title page

TITLE OF THE THESIS

Thesis submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru University

for award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

JNU LOGO

Division Name (if applicable)

Centre Name

School of International Studies

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY

New Delhi 110067

YEAR


APPENDIX 2: Declaration and Certificate

Date

DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis entitled “ ” submitted by me for the award of the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru University is my own work. The thesis has not been submitted for any other degree of this University or any other university.

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

CERTIFICATE

We recommend that this thesis be placed before the examiners for evaluation.

NAME OF CHAIRPERSON NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Chairperson, Centre Acronym Supervisor








School of International Studies

Jawaharlal Nehru University

New Delhi

RESEARCH MANUAL

(For MPhil/ PhD Students)

May 2006







Acknowledgement

There was a long felt need for revision of the School’s Research Manual. The then Dean, Professor R R Sharma, set up a committee to revise the manual. After more than a year’s deliberations, the new manual is ready.

I am grateful to all members of the committee – Professor Amit Shovon Ray, Professor Varun Sahni, Professor Madhu Bhalla, Dr Gulshan Sachdeva, Dr Ummu Salma Bava, Dr V G Hegde and Dr Siddharth Mallavarapu. They spent long hours preparing this document. We gratefully acknowledge extensive comments on earlier drafts received particularly from Professor I. N. Mukherjee, Professor C.S.R. Murthy, Dr P.R. Kumaraswamy and Dr Varaprasad.

In preparing this document, Gordon Harvey’s “Writing with Sources: A Guide for

Harvard Students”, Harvard University, 1995.

(http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/) and an online dictionary “Answers.com” (http://www.answers.com/Plagiarism) were found very useful.

Manmohan Agarwal

Dean, School of International Studies


Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

CONTENTS 2

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH MANDATE AND CHALLENGES 3

BROAD MANDATE AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH AT SIS 3

CHALLENGES OF AREA STUDIES RESEARCH AT SIS 3

The nature and direction of Area Studies 3

The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS 4

Is Area Studies multidisciplinary? 4

The use and misuse of history 5

Language Proficiency 5

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH DESIGN 6

METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND SOURCES 6

VARIABLES 6

SOME USEFUL DISTINCTIONS 7

Objectivity and Subjectivity 7

Description and Explanation 7

Induction and Deduction 8

AN IDEAL RESEARCH DESIGN 8

CHAPTER 3: PHD SYNOPSIS 10

CHAPTER 4: STYLE 11

LAYOUT, FONT AND STRUCTURE 11

CITATION 11

In-text 12

Reference 12

USE OF FOOTNOTES 17

PLAGIARISM 17

APPENDIX 1: TITLE PAGE 19

APPENDIX 2: DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATE 20


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Chapter 1: Research Mandate and Challenges Broad Mandate and Objectives of Research at SIS

Established in 1955, the School of International Studies is the oldest school of the University. During the fifty years of its existence, the School has established itself as one of the premier institutions in the country for the study of International Relations (focusing on facets of Politics, Economics and Law) and Area Studies.

The research mandate of SIS may be broadly categorised as:

* Understanding the world

* Understanding systems, institutions and processes

* Understanding India in a global context

* Understanding India's interaction with the world

In selecting a topic for MPhil/PhD research, students should try to locate her/his research problem in one or more of the above domains.

We encourage:

* Empirical research that is theoretically informed

* Theoretical research that is empirically grounded

* Pure theoretical research

Challenges of Area Studies Research at SIS

The School is the first institution in the country to promote “Area Studies” and to develop expertise on various countries and regions of the world. The challenges of area studies research at SIS can be discussed under the following heads:

* The nature and direction of Area Studies

* The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS

* The indispensability of multidisciplinary approaches

* The value of history as method and as narrative

* Language Proficiency

The nature and direction of Area Studies 

Areas Studies in India was conceived as an arm of policy making and the orientation of research has been linked, on the whole, to studying aspects of other states or international institutions that have an impact on India’s foreign policy and strategic interests.

However, the end of the Cold War and the emerging imperatives of globalization have forced scholars to rethink notions of areas, constituencies and objectives of Area Studies. Moreover, the emergence of developing country scholarship in the social sciences has allowed Area Studies scholars to use locally relevant concepts such as


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caste, lineage, guanxi and diaspora capitalism to understand social and political transformations that are central to contemporary concerns in these regions.

Indeed, if Area Studies is to remain relevant, it must, in the light of the above developments, adhere to the following broad framework:

* Conceptualize areas not just as nations or states but also as regions, or even as functional parts of the world system;

* Redefine the idea of “strategic interests” as including transformations in demography, livelihood, and political structures within and across nations and not just issues related to conventional aspects of conflict;

* Widen the constituency of area studies scholarship to include a range of new actors and decision-makers;

* Enhance one’s familiarity with indigenous scholarship and set up comparative approaches to area studies issues to overcome the problem of imposing culturally and politically contextualized concepts and frameworks.

The relevance of theory to Area Studies research at SIS

Scholarship in Area Studies has often been event driven and much less oriented towards problems and issues that have a long term relevance to national and regional interests. But scholarship in Area Studies, even if event-driven, must relate to contemporary problems and issues and provide a perspective that makes the discussion meaningful. To this end it must develop, use and test theory to frame the issues with which Area Studies engage.

There are distinctive advantages to an effective use of theory in Area Studies scholarship:

* As an analytical tool, the use of theory enables scholars to raise new questions about a problem, present perspectives and be rigorous in research (for instance, theories of globalisation and culture can give us new insights into the formation of Diaspora).

* Testing a theory, or a conceptual framework, also enables scholars to reaffirm or challenge received notions about an issue or a problem, often opening up the possibility of developing better analytical tools to comprehend significant issues (for instance, the debate on democracy and development in the context of the rise of China).

* Theory enables scholars to be self conscious about the intellectual or political premises of their scholarship.

Is Area Studies multidisciplinary?

Most scholars in the field of Area Studies come equipped with training in their respective disciplines. This has often been cited to describe area studies as multidisciplinary.

Yet, the presence of a host of scholars from different disciplines does not make the field multidisciplinary, unless scholarship provides evidence of the use of concepts and theoretical concerns that cut across disciplines, for example, political science and


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economics, or, Indian contributions to development economics and Japanese scholarship in sociology.

There are advantages of having a truly multidisciplinary approach to Area Studies issues given the wide range of issues that often become factors or variables in any contemporary issue. For example, any study of diaspora communities as a factor in foreign or security policy must take from scholarship in demographic studies, sociology as well as economics and history. Multidisciplinary approaches also often lead to the discovery of comparative studies of an issue which may present radically new perspectives on old issues. For example, studies on the Chinese diaspora have led scholars to review the significance of Indian diaspora communities, studies of which had earlier been cast entirely in a historical mould. In this context, comparative studies enable scholars to combine the best scholarship from other nations and regions with their own interests.

The use and misuse of history

One of the peculiar aspects of Indian Area Studies scholarship is the presence of at least one mandatory chapter on the history of the problem/country being researched. Often a second is smuggled in disguised as the “Introduction”. While the objective of the practice was well intentioned — to contextualize, and so ground, the problem in the history of the state – the effect of the practice has been to undermine analysis in favour of narrative.

To overcome this reliance on narrative, while retaining the objective of the practice, researchers need to differentiate between history as background and history as interpretation. Therefore, scholars must not just collect historical facts but also tell us what they make of them in relation to the problem they want to research. Thus, for example, it is less important to recount in detail the history of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia than it is to discuss aspects of it that threaten the security of the state or the people. Or even, the debate that Indonesian historians have set up on Dutch colonialism that is relevant to current concerns in Indonesia.

Periodisation is often used to set the limits of PhD research. In some cases, this is important, e.g., India’s economic performance post liberalisation: 1991-2004, or, India’s post-Pokhran II nuclear policy: 1998-2004. However, periodisation may not be essential for many research topics, especially when the research focus is theoretically inclined, e.g., China’s civil rights discourse and the reconstitution of minority identity. In such cases periodisation should be avoided as far as possible.

Language Proficiency

Area Studies research is critically dependent on knowledge of the area being researched. Without a command over the local language, such knowledge is difficult to acquire. Hence, a working knowledge of the relevant local language is an essential pre-requisite for Area Studies research.


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Chapter 2: Research Design

Designing a research project requires skill, which rarely comes without training, practice and sustained effort. While a few students may indeed have an innate ability at research design, it is perhaps best not to rely on your instincts alone to come up with a suitable research project. Research methodology – the study of research method – exists as a compulsory course in all M.Phil. programmes of the School precisely for this reason. You need to learn how research is conducted, and also how it ought to be conducted.

Methods, Techniques and Sources

A good starting point would be to distinguish between methods, techniques and sources, three terms that students often – and incorrectly – use as synonyms.

Methods relate to pathways; they answer the question ‘How should I proceed?’

Techniques cater to tools, or, in other words, to a ‘what’ question: ‘What should I use?’

Finally, sources are about locations; they provide answers to the question ‘Where should I look?’

Variables 

Research in the social sciences almost invariably involves the investigation of relationships between variables. In the natural sciences and in some of the social sciences, a variable is usually a measurable factor, characteristic, or attribute of an individual or a system. More generally, however, in the social sciences, we define a variable as a concept that can take on different values. A concept, incidentally, is an abstract, universal idea, notion or entity that serves to designate a category or class of entities, events or relations. Thus, ‘democracy’ and ‘truth’ are both concepts. However, ‘democracy’ is a variable because the level, type, quality or nature of democracy is likely to vary depending upon the political system that is being studied. ‘Truth’, on the other hand, is not a variable but a constant. This is because the terms ‘more truth’ and ‘less truth’ make no sense; we only have ‘truth’ and ‘untruth’.

At their most basic, there are two types of variables: independent variables and

dependent variables. For example:

If ‘a’, then ‘b’ [a ? b]

‘a’ is the independent variable;

‘b’ is the dependent variable.

Remember that you as a researcher are seeking to study the impact of ‘a’ upon ‘b’. You can, using several methods, alter the value of independent variables ‘a’ and study the impact of this change upon dependent variable ‘b’. In other words, independent variables are manipulated while dependent variables are measured and collected as data.


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To complicate matters further, we can include a third variable in the research design: a ? c ? b

‘a’ is the independent variable;

‘b’ is the dependent variable;

‘c’ is the intervening variable.

Without going into too much detail at this juncture, please note that through the use of ‘arrow diagrams’ such as the ones above we can delineate causal chains and isolate our study variable (the variable that is the focus of our study).

Some Useful Distinctions

Students are often confused between such distinctions as objectivity/subjectivity, description/explanation, and induction/deduction. Let us therefore examine these distinctions briefly.

Objectivity and Subjectivity

Objectivity involves the focus being upon that which is being viewed, and implies that the perspective does not alter depending upon the viewer; when the focus is on the viewer, and where it is understood that the perspective is viewer-dependent, subjectivity obtains. Please be aware that entire branches of knowledge can be differentiated on this basis, and that most disciplines are internally divided on such issues as the difference between metaphysical objectivity and epistemic objectivity. Whether ‘objective knowledge’ exists, or indeed can exist, is itself the subject of intense debate. It is nevertheless important that you understand the distinction between objectivity and subjectivity.

Description and Explanation

Considerably more important than the above is the distinction between description and explanation. Description is about capturing reality; all statements that answer the questions ‘Who?’, ‘What?’, When?’, ‘Where?’ and ‘How?’ are descriptive statements. Explanation, in contrast, is concerned with ordering reality; all explanatory statements answer the question ‘Why?’ You must understand that description, no matter how detailed and elegant, is not explanation; hence, the narrative cannot replace analysis. Description, by its very nature, thrives on detail: the greater the detail, the richer the description. The intellectual enterprise of explanation, in sharp contrast, involves not detail but simplicity: the more parsimonious the explanation, i.e., the fewer variables it involves, the better it is.1 The more parsimonious an explanation is, the more applicable it is likely to be in a wide variety of cases. This includes, obviously, future cases as well: thus, to explain is to predict.

There are, broadly speaking, three kinds of description:

1 Clearly some models may require more explanatory variables than others. But the important point to note here is that incorporating a large number of explanatory variables does not necessarily make your model more powerful.


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* The Case Study requires ‘thick description’ or ‘deep description’, or in other words the anthropological method. The idea is to study of a multitude of variables in a single case. The problem with the case study is that a case proves nothing but itself; no general conclusions can be drawn from the study of a singular case. One must, therefore, clearly identify the criteria for selecting the particular case being studied.

* The Comparative Study is a study of similarities and differences. In comparative studies, case and variable selection becomes all important. As a general rule, the cases ought to be sufficiently similar that comparison is warranted, and sufficiently different that comparison is fruitful.

* The Statistical Study involves “large n” description, i.e., the study of a few variables over a large number of cases. The biggest challenge in statistical studies is quantification or ‘operationalizing’ the variables, i.e., making the variables amenable to mathematical operations.

Induction and Deduction

The final distinction that is worth highlighting is that between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that takes one from the particular to the general. Thus, the opinion poll is based on the inductive method. The outcome of inductive reasoning is often novel but always uncertain. This is because of the ‘n+1 problem’: just because ‘x’ is true in ‘n’ cases does not guarantee that it will be true in the ‘n+1th’ case. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, is a form of reasoning in which, starting from certain general premises, a particular conclusion is reached. For ease of memory, this can be dubbed the ‘Sherlock Holmes method’: from a set of (general) clues the detective identifies the (specific) perpetrator of the crime. In deductive reasoning, as long as the premises are true, the outcome is necessarily true. By its very nature, deductive reasoning cannot throw up new data.

An Ideal Research Design

What should a well designed research project be based on? In brief, a good research project is a blend of innovative concepts, rigorous method and substantive content (Przeworski and Salomon, 1995). You need to ask yourself two tough questions: What’s new in my research project? What makes my research project worthwhile? The focus here is on value addition: that the outcome of the project will throw up/suggest/point toward something that we do not already know. Please remember that a good research paper always specifies at the very outset exactly how it is ‘adding value’. In this context, the utility of a bibliography (literature review) should be evident: it tells the reader what the ‘state of the art’ is, what we know and what we do not know.

What sort of research problems should a well designed project focus on? Essentially, it should be a research problem that falls under at least one of the following five categories:

* problems that have been understudied or ignored;

* problems with historical significance;


8


* problems with contemporary relevance (but beware of being just one more contributor in an already crowded field);

* problems with theoretical or conceptual significance;

* problems that need to be revisited because of new evidence or perspectives.

As a good way to begin, you need to come up with the best way to set your problem. Problem setting means getting to the heart of the problem: stating it in a manner that catches the attention of the reader and makes its relevance self-evident. There are principally three ways of setting the problem:

* Posing a non-rhetorical question:

‘Could the LTTE survive without the active support of the Tamil diaspora?’

* Stating a falsifiable proposition:

‘Kashmir is a symptom, not a cause, of discord between India and Pakistan.’

* Focusing on apparently paradoxical data:

‘The percentage of women in the Iranian workforce has tripled after the

Islamic Revolution.’


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Chapter 3: PhD Synopsis

A student is expected to have a good comprehension of the existing literature in her/his chosen field of research before writing a synopsis. The length of the synopsis should ideally be around 12 pages (excluding bibliography) in A4 with Times New Roman Font 12 and 1.5 line spacing. The synopsis must follow the following structure:

Section 1: Background (2 pages) 

The student must briefly posit the broad context of her/his research problem.

Section 2: Review of the Literature (6 pages) 

The literature should be organised in a thematic structure and not as a listing of summaries of important references. Try to structure the literature review in a manner which highlights the issues relevant to your thesis and identify the gaps therein. Note that more than one corpus of literature might be of relevance to your study.

Section 3: Definition, Rationale and Scope of the Study (11/2 pages)

Based on the above critical survey of the relevant literature, you should clearly define the research puzzle that is being addressed and explain the rationale and scope of the study in this section.

Section 4: Research Problem/Question and Hypothesis (1 page)

Present a clear statement of your research problem in this section. Formulate your research questions bearing in mind a clear response to the “so-what?” question. This should be followed by a crisp and cogent statement of your research hypothesis posed in the form of a falsifiable proposition.

Section 5: Research Methods (1 page)

This section should contain a clear description of how the student intends to answer her/his research question(s). We expect a rigorous exposition of the research methods to be employed. Statements like “the study is descriptive/ analytical” will not suffice. In this section the student must also mention the sources of data and information required for the study.

Section 6: Tentative Chapters (1/2 page)

The student must give a list of tentative chapter headings with a brief description (not exceeding 2-3 lines) of the content of each chapter. The first and the last chapter must be called Introduction and Conclusion respectively.

Bibliography: 

All sources that may be relevant to your research should be listed in the style outlined

in the Chapter 4 (“Style”) of this manual.


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Chapter 4: Style

Layout, Font and Structure

The thesis must be printed on one side of A4 paper only, with a margin of 1.5 inches on the left-hand side of each page and 1 inch on the right side. The top and bottom margins should also be an inch.

The main text should be in Times New Roman Font 12 with 1.5 spacing. Long quotations (running over two sentences) should be single spaced and left indented. It is the candidate’s responsibility to ensure that the print of the thesis is clear and legible.

Use Indian (British) spellings rather than American spellings except in direct quotations, proper names and source titles. In other words, use “defence” and “labour” normally, but “U.S. Department of Defense” and “U.S. Department of Labor” when referring to these specific bureaucracies.

The thesis will have the following sequence of items

(1) Title page (sampled as appendix 1)

(2) Declaration and Certificate page (appendix 2)

(3) Acknowledgement (Try to make it brief and highlight academic contributions)

(4) Contents

(5) List of tables, figures, abbreviations (if applicable)

(6) Chapters of the thesis

(7) References

Chapter 1 should be called Introduction containing a clear exposition of the context and rationale of the study, the research question(s), an outline of the structure of the thesis. Chapter 2 should ideally consist of a detailed review of relevant theoretical and empirical literature. The final chapter should be called Conclusion and must briefly restate the research problem and summarise the main findings and implications of the study.

Citation

The purpose of citation is to indicate clearly the sources from which

(1) You rely on factual information or data.

(2) You need to quote verbatim.

(3) You use others’ ideas, interpretations, analyses or conclusions even if you summarize or paraphrase in your own language.

(4) You organize or structure your argument using somebody else’s distinctive structure, style or method.

(5) You state in passing another person's work.

When in doubt, cite – over-citation is better than under-citation. The key to effective citation is to give the reader enough information to locate the source in a clear and consistent manner.


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In-text

Among many recognized styles, we recommend the author-year style of in-text referencing, where you indicate in the text itself not only the name of the source author but also the year in which the source was published. The author's name may appear in the sentence itself or in parentheses; the year of publication always appears in parentheses.

The following example illustrates the style:

A key role of the state is said to be to regulate the conflicts between them in

order to realise ‘national interest’ (Miliband 1977).

OR

Miliband (1977) argues that a key role of the state is to regulate the conflicts

between them in order to realise ‘national interest’.

In case you are quoting or citing from a specific page or page range, use one of the following formats:

Mattoo and Subramanian expressed India’s position at Doha to be ‘characteristically but perhaps not unjustifiably defensive’, and recommended a proactive stance at future negotiations (Mattoo and Subramanian 2003: 328).

Once again, in a reverse manner, ethnic conflicts broke out in Bhutan in 1990 as a result of exclusivist Drupka ethno-nationalism, bent on turning Bhutan into a mono-ethnic polity (Baral 1996; Phadnis 1990: 39-40, 79-80, 125-129).

If, however, you have more than one author in your reference list with the same surname, then it is advisable to use the full name and year in parentheses whenever you are refereeing to these authors, e.g.

Debraj Ray (1998), Rajat Ray (1990).

If a source has two authors, mention all the names in the signal phrase in your sentence or put them in your parenthetic citation, e.g.,

Dasgupta and Stiglitz (1980) OR (Dasgupta and Stiglitz 1980)

If a source has more than two authors, use the first surname with et al. ("and others") in your citation.

Reference 

All author-year in text citations refer to an alphabetical list of "References" at the end of the thesis, whose format emphasizes date of publication. Note that it is a list of “references” and NOT a “bibliography”. Therefore, you should not include any source that is not cited either in the text or in the footnotes.

The format for the References must meet the following specifications:

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* Start your references on a new page, after the last page of your text. The references must be single spaced with a double space between them.

* List all your references (primary or secondary) alphabetically. Put an asterisk mark (*) against (at the beginning on the left side) of the primary sources as and when they appear in the list and mention this after the heading.

* Immediately before the consolidated list of references, students may append an alphabetised list of Primary Sources if their supervisor so requires.

REFERENCES 

(* indicates a primary source)

* Follow the following style for different types of references:

Books

Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title in italics, Place: Publisher.

Abraham, I. (1999), The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State, New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Articles or other work in a journal

Surname, First Names/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, Name of Journal in italics, vol (no): page numbers.

Arrow, K.J. (1962), “The Economic Implications of Learning by Doing”, Review of Economic Studies, 29 (3): 155-173.

Article, chapter, or work in an edited volume

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, in Names of Editors (eds.) Title of the edited volume, Place: Publisher.

Cox, Robert (1992), “Towards a Post-Hegemonic Conceptualisation of World Order: Reflections on the Relevancy of Ibn Khaldun”, in James N. Rosenau and Ernst-Otto Czempiel (eds.) Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Article in a newspaper or magazine

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), “Title of the article”, Newspaper, Place, Exact date [dd Month yyyy].

Chatterjee, Partha (1999), “Fragile Distinctions: Between Good and Bad Nationalism”, The Times of India, New Delhi, 20 August 1999.

Unpublished dissertation or paper

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Surname, First Names/Initials (year), Title of thesis, Ph.D Thesis, Place: University.

Bhattacharya, Abanti (2004), Chinese Nationalism: The Impact on Policy, Ph.D. Thesis, New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University.

Translated book

Surname, Firstnames/Initials (year), Title of the Translated work, Name of Editor (ed) if any, Translated by Names of the Translators, Place: Publisher.

Borges, Jorge Luis (1999), Selected Non-Fictions, Elliot Weinberger (ed), Translated by E. Allen, S.J. Levine and E. Weinberger, New York: Penguin.

Government, International Organisations and NGO publications

Name of the Government/ International Organisation (year), Title, Publication Details (number etc) if any, Place.

Government of India (2005), Economic Survey 2004-2005, Ministry of Finance, New Delhi.

OR

Ministry of Commerce (2000), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 2 (12) December.

Ministry of Commerce (2001a), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, ‘India reaffirms position on WTO issues at Mexico meet’, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 3 (6-7), June-July: 3-9.

Ministry of Commerce (2001b), Government of India, Ministry of Commerce, ‘India reaffirms position on WTO issues at Mexico meet’, Newsletter of Ministry of Commerce: India and the WTO, 3 (9), September.

World Bank (2003), World Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press: New York.

Congressional Hearings, I, (1999), US 106th Congress, Session 1st, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Hearings, The Taiwan Security Enhancement Act, August 4, 1999 (US Government Printing Office: Washington. DC).

Legal case

List cases by title; give volume number and abbreviated name of reporting service, starting page-number in the volume, court that decided the case, and year.

Examples:

Document/agreement obtained from the United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS):


Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, (1951), 82 UNTS 280.

Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949 Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, (1950), 75 UNTS 135.

United Nations Documents like General Assembly Resolutions/ Security Council Resolutions:

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Year), UN Doc A/CONF.183/9. Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993) UN Doc. S/RES/827, annex.

Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda (1994), UN Doc. S/RES/955, annex.

GA Res. (Year), 217 A (III), UN Doc. A/810 (the reference to this GA Resolution and the text etc. would be there in the main text).

Decisions of the International Court of Justice:

Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, (1996), ICJ Reports, 226, para. 70

LeGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, (1999), ICJ Reports 1, para. 29.

GATT Document in the Basic Instruments and Selected Documents

Agreement on the Interpretation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT, BISD 26 Supp. 171 (1980).

WTO cases

United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, Appellate

Body Report and Panel Report, WTO Document WTO/DS2/9 of 20 May 1996.

Indian Supreme Court (SC)/High Court cases reported in the All India Reporter (AIR).

Lallubhai Chakubhai Jariwalala vs. Samaldas Sankalchand Shah, AIR, 1934 Bom.

407.

Mahendra Verma vs. Rajendra Verma, AIR 1999 SC 3345.

Some Variants

Two authors

Bhagwati, J and P. Desai (1970), India: Planning for Industrialisation, London:

Oxford University press.

Three or more authors

Judge, G.G. et al. (1985), The Theory and Practice of Econometrics, New York: John

Wiley & Sons.

Reprinted book

Schumpeter, J.A. (1954), History of Economic Analysis, New York: Oxford

University Press, reprinted 1976.


15


Book in several volumes

Chenery, H. and T.N. Srinivasan (eds) (1988), Handbook of Development Economics,

Vol. I, Amsterdam: North Holland.

Indirect Source

For a source you know only as it is quoted or cited by another scholar, give full publication data for the original source and for the other scholar, linked by the phrase "quoted in" or “cited in."

Levi-Strauss, C. (1969) The Raw and the Cooked: An Introduction to a Science of Mythology. New York: Harper & Row. Quoted in Howard Gardner (1983), Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, New York: Basic Books.

Internet Sources

Brin, D. (1993), “The good and the bad: Outlines of tomorrow”, [Online: web] Accessed 5 Sept. 1995 URL: http://kspace.com/ KM/spot.sys/Brin/pages/piece1.html.

Harvey, G. (1995), Writing with Sources: A Guide for Harvard Students, Gordon Expository Writing Program, Harvard University, [Online: web] Accessed 15 May 2005, URL: http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~expos/sources/.

ICTSD (2004), International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (Geneva), “India Submits Cautious Services Offer”, BRIDGES Weekly Trade News Digest, 8 (3), 28 January: 4-5, URL: http://www.ictsd.org/weekly/04-01-28/BRIDGESWeekly8-03.pdf.

IFATPC (2004), International Food and Agricultural Trade Policy Council, “Twenty-Five Ways to Improve the Derbez Draft on Agriculture”, 10 February, URL: http://www.agritrade.org/Doha/Derbez/Assessment%20Paper.pdf.

Przeworski, Adam and Frank Salomon (1995), “The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions”, New York: Social Science Research Council, revised 1998, [Online:

web] Accessed 3 February 2006, URL:

http://www.ssrc.org/fellowships/art_of_writing_proposals.page.

Class lecture, conference paper, speech, or performance

Lal, Deepak (2005), “Globalizing Capitalism”, Lecture delivered on 19 April 2005 at the Centre for International Trade and Development, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University: New Delhi.

Prior to citing lectures and conference papers, ensure that the author has not specified that the lecture/paper is not for citation.

Personal or phone interview, letter or e-mail

16


Agarwal, M.L. (2005), e-mail to the author, 5 April 2005.

Weeramantry, C.G. (2000), personal interview, Baudholoka Mawatha, Colombo, 28

April 2000.

A document authenticating the content of the interview is mandatory. Use of Footnotes

You will occasionally want to tell the examiner/reader something that neither directly advances your argument nor acknowledges or documents a source. For this you use a discursive footnote. Example:

It has often been argued that economic reforms in India have been carried out within the framework of long drawn democratic processes.1

1 There is, however, a minority view that Indian economic reforms have scuttled democratic processes by adopting tactical and clandestine, though legitimate, strategies. (Jenkins 1999)

Sometimes, you may need to use a footnote to elaborate the nuances of an argument without disrupting the flow in the main text. Example:

The tightening of monetary policy and reduction of the fiscal deficit through strict control of expenditures required under the IMF structural adjustment programme are deflationary.1

1 While the programmes of the IMF are only applicable to countries borrowing from it, developing and transitional economies, there has been a broad move towards restricting fiscal deficits, e.g., the Maastricht Treaty requirements, and increasingly independence of the Central Banks, with very often the sole specified goal of reducing inflation.

Use footnotes only when the note is really interesting and relevant enough to mention.

Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of each page (single spaced) with footnote numbers appearing in the text in superscript (Times New Roman, font 10).

Plagiarism

Plagiarism refers to the use of another's ideas, information, language, or writing, as one’s own without proper citation of the original source. This is a very serious academic offence that may ruin your entire academic career. People have even lost their jobs on charges of plagiarism. This indicates the gravity of the offence.

We would like to dispel some of the misconceptions regarding plagiarism.

* It is a misnomer that plagiarism only refers to verbatim reproduction from a source without citation. Even if you paraphrase, summarise or otherwise use an idea, information, interpretation or analysis from another source without citation, it is plagiarism.


17


* Use of “common knowledge” factual information does not constitute plagiarism, e.g., Bamako is the Capital of Mali. If you are unsure whether the information you are using is “common knowledge”, it is always advisable to cite the source.

* Plagiarism always involves an element of dishonesty. Even if you plagiarise inadvertently, you are liable.

* It is conceivable that two or more unrelated people working in different parts of the world come up with exactly the same idea/analysis at the same point in time. This would not constitute plagiarism. However, this is a very rare coincidence. It is possible that close to the conclusion of your thesis, you may discover that your idea overlaps with that of a recent publication. Don’t get alarmed and don’t pretend to ignore the source. Be candid in citing it as supportive of your thesis. Remember that no two ideas/ analyses are likely to be mirror images of each other. Please do not treat this recent reference as undermining the value of your research.

* When you get an idea/ comment from another person in the course of discussions and you use that in your research, you must acknowledge. Likewise, if you use an idea jointly conceived by a research team (that includes you), you can not pretend to present it in your work as your own idea. In both cases, citation is a must; else you commit plagiarism.


18


APPENDIX 1: Title page

TITLE OF THE THESIS

Thesis submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru University

for award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

JNU LOGO

Division Name (if applicable)

Centre Name

School of International Studies

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY

New Delhi 110067

YEAR


APPENDIX 2: Declaration and Certificate

Date

DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis entitled “ ” submitted by me for the award of the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Jawaharlal Nehru University is my own work. The thesis has not been submitted for any other degree of this University or any other university.

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE

CERTIFICATE

We recommend that this thesis be placed before the examiners for evaluation.

NAME OF CHAIRPERSON NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Chairperson, Centre Acronym Supervisor


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©1996 Westinghouse Security Electronics

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.


iii

LIMITED WARRANTY

Westinghouse Security Electronics warrants to the original user the Equipment manufactured by Security Electronics as described herein (the Equipment) to be free from defects in material and workmanship for a period of one year from the date of purchase by such user or fifteen (15) months from the date of shipment from the factory, whichever is sooner, provided:

I Security Electronics has been notified within such period by return of any alleged defective equipment, free and clear of any liens and encumbrances to Security Electronics or its authorized Dealer at the address specified, transportation prepaid; and

II the Equipment has not been abused, misused or improperly maintained and/or repaired during such period; and

III such defect has not been caused by ordinary wear and tear; and

IV such defect is not a result of voltage surges/brownouts, lightning, water damage/flooding, fire, explosion, earthquakes, tornadoes, acts of aggression/war or similar phenomena; and

V accessories used as an integral to Security Electronics Systems have been approved by Security Electronics (e.g., coaxial cables, batteries, etc.); and

VI the Equipment has been installed, the installation supervised or installation tested by an authorized Security Electronics Dealer.

Security Electronics' Proximity Command Keys are warranted for 5 years. Security Electronics shall at its option, either repair or replace, free of charge, the Equipment found, upon Security Electronics' inspection to be so defective, or if agreed upon, refund the purchase price, less a reasonable allowance for depreciation, in exchange for the Equipment. Magnetic Stripe Cards are warranted as described by the manufacturer's warranty.

SECURITY ELECTRONICS MAKES NO OTHER WARRANTY, AND ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES INCLUDING ANY WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE LIMITED TO THE DURATION OF THE EXPRESSED WARRANTY PERIOD ASSET FORTH ABOVE.

SECURITY ELECTRONICS MAXIMUM LIABILITY HEREUNDER IS LIMITED TO THE PURCHASE PRICE OF THE EQUIPMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECURITY ELECTRONICS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CONSEQUENTIAL, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL OR SPECIAL DAMAGES OF ANY NATURE ARISING FROM THE SALE OR USE OF THE PRODUCT.

Some states do not allow limitations on incidental or consequential damages or how long an implied warranty lasts, so the above limitations may not apply. This warranty gives specific legal rights; however, other rights which vary from state to state, may pertain.


IV

IMPORTANT INFORMATION FOR THE USER

The information provided in this manual is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, Westinghouse Security Electronics (WSE) assumes no responsibility for any errors that may appear. Possession of this manual does not imply the granting of licenses to make or sell equipment or software constructed according to descriptions provided.


SE 6000 Installation Guide v



Section 1: Overview 1-1

SECTION 1: OVERVIEW


BEFORE YOU START

Your SE 6000 system and its components have been set up, configured, and tested at the Westinghouse Security Electronics (WSE) factory. The UNIX operating system, application software, and database management system have been loaded and are ready to accept data. Should you require help, the remote support modem has been programmed and tested, and its configuration values have been stored in nonvolatile memory.

This guide describes connections from various access control units (ACUs) and monitor point controllers to the SE 6000. The guide does not cover the installation of ACUs or any other peripheral equipment that may be connected. Refer to the appropriate installation manual shipped with the device for correct installation procedures, any additional hardware requirements, and cable length limitations.

Additionally, the procedures and information contained herein are written with the assumption that the reader has attended the SE 6000 training course and is familiar with system nomenclature and the user/operator interface.

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Since each SE 6000 system installation varies depending on facility layout, security requirements, etc., WSE does not supply cables or connectors for attaching terminals, printers, ACUs, or other monitoring equipment.

To complete your installation, you will need some or all of the following additional components in quantities suitable for your particular system configuration:

[ ] Quality 8-conductor flat Telco cable

[ ] Quality crimp-on RJ-45/8 modular Telco connectors

[ ] Suitable RJ-45/8 crimp tool (recommend Amp tool)

[ ] RJ-45/8 to female RS-232 modular adaptors (for SE 708P, SE 800-series)

[ ] RJ-45/8 to female RS-232 modular adaptors to terminals; RJ-45/8 to male RS-232 modular adaptors to printers. (Reflection 4 terminals may require 9-pin RS-232 for COM1.)

or

[ ] HP D2042G terminal / printer cables or equivalent (one shipped with system-packed

in the terminal concentrator box).




Section 2: Installation Procedures 2-1

SECTION 2: INSTALLATION

PROCEDURES

1. Unbox all components and inspect for shipping damage.

2. Keep all SE 6000 hardware manuals together for future reference.

3. Locate the connection diagram (Section 10) that applies to your system.

4. With the computer POWERED OFF (power switch in Out position):

[ ] A. Connect the power cord to the AC input receptacle.

[ ] B. Plug the Activator M key into the parallel port.

[ ] C. Connect the remote support modem with supplied cable to COM1.

[ ] D. Connect the terminal concentrator(s) to the appropriate corollary board connec

tor (the one closest to the green activity light is a).

NOTE

The terminal concentrator can be located up to 1000 feet from the host adaptor, if necessary. Refer to the HP manual shipped with the unit for remote power and cabling requirements.

[ ] E. Connect the keyboard and mouse to the appropriate ports.

[ ] F. Connect the color graphics monitor to the monitor port.

[ ] G. Connect the printer(s) to the appropriate terminal concentrator ports (see configuration sheet shipped with the system).

[ ] H. Connect any additional PC color terminals or monochrome monitors to the appropriate terminal concentrator ports (see configuration sheet shipped with the system).

[ ] I. Verify that all connections are snug, and that retaining screws are tightened

securely.

[ ] J. Connect the power cable(s) to an appropriate power source and turn on the

computer, terminal(s), printer(s), and remote support modem. (Make sure the printers have paper loaded and are ready to go.)


2-2 Section 2: Installation Procedures

[ ] K. Press Enterat the boot prompt. PressCtrl/ D to bring up the system in the multi

user mode. When the system date and time display, reset if not correct. Enter the correct date and time in the format

yymmddhhmm

yy =Year (94, 95, ...)

MM =Month (01-12)

dd =Day (01-31)

hh =Hour (01-23) MM =Minute (01-59)


with no intervening spaces. For example, September 23, 1994 at 10:06 a.m. would be entered as:

9409231006

If the date is correct but the time wrong, simply enter the correct time (1006 in the foregoing example).

[ ] L. If the time zone is correct, skip the remainder of this step. Otherwise, proceed

as follows:

A. Shut the system down. Then, bring it up again in the maintenance mode by entering the root password new123 at the maintenance mode prompt and pressing Enter.

B. When the # prompt displays enter tzand press Enter.

C. Respond to the questions as prompted, entering the information for your time zone.

D. Shutdown the system by entering haltsys and pressing Enter. At the Safe to Power Off message, press the spacebar to restart the system.

[ ] M. Bring the system up in the multi-user mode by holding down the Ctrl key and

pressing d.

[ ] N. Log into the application as addusers (the factory set password is new123).

Select Monitor Security Activity and press F2 (or Enter twice).

[ ] O. Select F2-Control Functions, F2-Pollers. The pollers defined for your configuration should all indicate Online.

[ ] P. If the access control and input/output controllers are already installed, connect

the device loops one at a tiMe to the appropriate poller port on the terminal concentrator box (see Section 9. Connection DiagraMs). Test each device for normal communication.

[ ] Q. Select in order Master File Maintenance, System Configuration, then Device

Entryand add the appropriate device record for each ACU. As these are added,


Section 2: Installation Procedures 2-3

the devices should begin to communicate with the SE 6000. To verify this, use the Monitor Security Activity, Control Functions, Pollers screen. Use the down arrow key to highlight the poller you are working with, then press F4 for device communication.

If the device is responding correctly, you should see'raw' data flashing under the Response heading. If the unit is not communicating, check or perform the following:

[ ] Concentrator is communicating with the host-green host light on the right

front of the concentrator is on solid.

[ ] Cable and adapter terminated correctly.

[ ] Cable is plugged into correct concentrator port.

[ ] Device communication baud rate is 9600 bps.

[ ] The device record has the correct computer ID: 0 for host connection; 1 to x for LC/RLC connection.

[ ] Device is powered up.

[ ] Device address set correctly.

[ ] Cycle power on the device.

[ ] Reboot the system following the procedures given in Section 3. Starting

/Stopping the SE 6000 System.

If you are still unable to communicate with the device, contact your dealer or WSE customer service for assistance. See Section 7. Product Support for hours of operation and phone numbers.



Section 3: Starting / Stopping the SE 6000 System 3-1

SECTION 3: STARTING / STOPPING

THE SE 6000 SYSTEM

The SE 6000 is a sophisticated blend of state-of-the-art hardware, comprehensive multi-user, multitasking operating system, and advanced access control software. During the course of normal day-to-day activity, the system is performing several tasks concurrently and keeps track of all the files associated with each task.

Unlike MS-DOS, UNIX requires an orderly shutdown procedure to maintain system and data integrity. Although it is robust enough to handle power failures and'unscheduled' interruptions, these are considered abnormal shutdowns that leave the database and temporary files open. The operating system and application software will close the files and fix the database when the system is restarted.

NOTE

This occurs automatically within 30 seconds if:

* The system is unattended (no keyboard or mouse activity),

or

* The operator fails to respond to the boot prompt following power restoration.


If you are required to shut down the system for any reason, you should make every effort to follow the standard shutdown procedures. This will ensure your data integrity and will make the subsequent system start-up as expeditious as possible.

STANDARD SYSTEM SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES

1. Log off the system by pressing F1 until the Exit SEISMS System prompt appears. Then respond yes and press Enter.

2. Log back in as Shutdown. Enter the appropriate password-(new123-default) and press Enter. This generates a broadcast message to other terminals that maybe still active, warning the operators to log off immediately.

If any operators remain logged in, the shutdown is interrupted. When certain thata((operators are logged off, enter Y to continue.

This action will then suspend poller operation, halt the miscellaneous tasks that control the


3-2 Section 3: Starting / Stopping the SE 6000 System

database, log, and print functions, close all open files, and will shut down the database in an orderly fashion.

3. Finally, the Safe to Power Off message appears. You can then safely remove power from

the SE 6000 and its various components.

NOTE

These procedures take approximately one minute.

RESTARTING THE SYSTEM

To restart the system:

* Power it on and allow it to 'autoboot',

or

* Follow the procedures given in Section 2. Installation Procedures, beginning with Step K.


Section 4: Getting Started With the Database Build 4-1

SECTION 4: GETTING STARTED

WITH THE DATABASE BUILD

The SE 6000 User's Manual(packaged with your software distribution) explains in detail the various files and entry screens that are used to build and maintain the database. While the software is powerful and flexible enough to allow you to'build on the fly', it is by no means the most efficient way to tackle the job.

The SE 6000 database is organized logically and has some internal dependencies called'linkages'. For example, you must define an ACU to the system before you can define readers or monitor points for that device.

To enable you to get started quickly, the setup sequence logic for the system hardware is included. (Refer to theSE 6000 User's Manualfor the complete list of data that needs to be entered to configure a fully-functional access control system.)

The screens necessary to define the following are located on the Master File Entryand Device Configuration menus. Proceed as follows:

1. Enter your time codes.

2. For installation purposes, use Tenant 0 for your physical devices unless you have already designed the tenant structure. If Tenant 0 is used, this can be changed later if required.

3. Define and enter zones, if applicable. This allows you to view and control devices, readers and points in user-selected groups (zones). The zones can be changed/reorganized at any time without deleting records. (Seethe SE 6000 User's Manualand the SE 6000 Database Setup manual for zone and anti-passback details.)

4. Define and enter pollers.

NoTE

The system pollers are set at the WSE factory during the test phase. If you wish to use a different numbering scheme, delete the factory-set numbers and re-add at this time.

5. Define and enter your devices.

6. Define and enter your monitor points, including door switches and REX points.

7. Define and enter your readers. To test the readers, you also have to add the following:

[ ] An access code that includes all readers defined previously.


4-2 Section 4: Getting Started With the Database Build

NOTE

You can use time code 1 (24 hours access on all days) supplied with the system.

[ ] A test keyholder that is assigned the access code defined previously with a key.


Section 5: Backing Up the System 5-1

SECTION 5: BACKING UP THE

SYSTEM

The SE 6000 is equipped with a large-capacity hard disk drive, and even entry-level systems would require a large number of floppy diskettes for backup. For this reason, a 150MB tape drive is standard on all SE 6000 systems.

Packaged with your system, WSE has provided two emergency floppy diskettes (usually referred to as the build diskettes), and a backup tape of your entire system which we created in our factory after configuring, loading, and testing your system. Except for the test records, the database is empty. If necessary, this tape could be used, with WSE customer support help, to restore any or all files to their original condition. Make sure these are put in a safe place, along with the SCO/UNIX and SCO/CGI 'pink' activation cards.

Installing, implementing, and managing a large access control/alarm monitoring system requires the joint effort of many personnel. During the initial phases of system implementation, the database processes many changes, mostly in the form of new data items. Besides the device and point records, large companies often have hundreds or thousands of keyholder records and a wide variety of access code definitions. Because of the update volume, it is good practice during system implementation to back up the database frequently, even daily when the database is first being created.

To perform the backup, first obtain a supply of 150MB formatted tapes (10 to begin with).

NOTE

WSE uses and recommends the Sony 6150 tape or equivalent.

Label the tapes A1 through A5, and B1 through B5, and be sure to include the appropriate date. This will enable you to rotate your backups, keep them together by week if required, and to identify how old they are later. During the build phase of every installation, backup the database from the System Administration menu each evening, and enter the date, tape number and your initials in the backlog. This procedure enables you to reuse the tapes many times during the installation without having to peel labels.



Section 6: System Recovery-Power Failure 6-1

SECTION 6: SYSTEM

RECOVERY-POWER FAILURE

Local power failures, inadvertently disconnecting the CPU from its power source, and system crashes are unavoidable, and these happen toALL computer systems from time to time. Both the UNIX operating system and the SE 6000 database management system will inform you of any data discrepancies following an'unscheduled' interruption, and together they will automatically correct these before resuming operations.

When power returns, either allow the system to recover automatically by waiting at least 30 seconds after the boot prompt appears, or proceed as follows:

1. Cycle power on the system; press Enter at the boot prompt.

2. When UNIX is loaded, it will inform you that the root file system needs to checked with the message OK to proceed Y/V?. Enter Y.

3. A UNIX utility, file system check-fsck, will locate all the file system discrepancies and will ask if it is OK to fix them. Always answer Y to these system prompts.

4. After fixing the problems, the file system check utility responds with Set file system state to OK?. Enter Y.

5. The system will then load the application software which automatically goes into the recovery mode. When this completes, the software starts the pollers, rebuilds memory maps as required, tells you that the system has been restarted successfully, then displays the log-in prompt. Depending on the size of your installation and database, the recovery procedures take from 5 to 15 minutes.

IMPORTANT

If the system does not restart after you complete these procedures, try them a second time. If still not successful, contact WSE customer support for assistance (See Section 7.• Product Support).



Section 7: Product Support 7-1

SECTION 7: PRODUCT SUPPORT


Product support maybe obtained from your authorized dealer, either directly or via modem. Every SE 6000 system is supplied with a remote support modem (Telebit T1000 or Trailblazer) that communicates over standard voice grade lines at 9600 bps.

IMPORTANT

Modems are supplied with U.S. domestic shipments only. Because of differing foreign regulations concerning modems, SE 6000 systems shipped internationally are not supplied with these units.

If dealer support is unavailable, contact the WSE customer support department, either directly or via modem. The department is open Monday through Friday, 0600 to 1800 PST, public holidays excepted. The phone numbers are:

(800) 227-1667

(408) 727-5170 (ask for technical support)

(408) 727-6521 ext 1-5400

For areas served by WSE Europe, customer service representatives can be reached Monday through Friday, from 0800 to 1700 local time (Netherlands), public holidays excepted. The phone number is:

(31) 71417197

In all cases, please have the following information available:

A. SE 600 system type (6050, 6100, etc.)

B. Device types attached to the system (SE 708P, SE 800-Series, Opto's, etc.)

C. Dial-in phone number for the remote support modem

D. Phone number and end-user contact name

E. Software revision level

F. Detailed problem description


7-2 Section 7: Product Support

OTHER MODEM CAPABILITIES

With a terminal and compatible modem, your dealer or system administrator can also access the SE 6000 remotely should you choose to provide this capability. Once logged in, remote users may access all the system functions their individual security levels permit.


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-1

SECTION 8: CABLE

CONFIGURATIONS

INTRODUCTION

The SE 6000 systems communicate with and support a variety of devices. This section provides details on cable termination for the currently supported ACUs, input/output controllers, broadcast boxes, modems, and HP terminals/ printers. The various cable configurations, in the order given in this section, are listed below.

CABLECON FIGURATION LIST

HP 8-Port Mux to an HP 700-Series Terminal ....................................................................... 8-2 HP 8-Port Mux to SHMs, to SE 708P or SE 800-Series ........................................................ 8-3 HP 8-Port Mux to SHMs (Black Box), to HP 700-Series Terminal......................................... 8-5 HP 8-Port Mux to DBB (Black Box), to SHMs (Black Box), to SE 708P or SE 800-series ..... 8-7 HP 8-Port Mux to DBB (Black Box) ....................................................................................... 8-9 HP 8-Port Mux to HP 8-Port Mux ........................................................................................ 8-10 HP8-Port Mux to SE CI-8 ................................................................................................... 8-11 HP 8-Port Mux to SE 708P or SE 800-Series ..................................................................... 8-12 HP8-Port Mux to SE 422 ................................................................................................... 8-13 HP 8-Port Mux to Burle Camera Unit .................................................................................. 8-14 HP 8-Port Mux to Opto AC7 RS-232, to RS-422/485 Adapter Card.................................... 8-15

Modemto RDI Unit ........................................................................................................... 8-16

RDI to SE 800-Series or Ci-1 (Serial Port J8 on RDI) ......................................................... 8-17 HP D2042G Terminal / Printer Cable (One Shipped With System)..................................... 8-18 HP 24542G and HP 24542H Serial Printer / Plotter Cable................................................. 8-19 HP 24542M US / European Modem Cable ......................................................................... 8-20 HP D2043M US / European Modem Cable ......................................................................... 8-21 HP Mux to LD485 (Black Box) RS485 Converter ................................................................ 8-22 SECI-8 to SE 422 Pinouts ................................................................................................. 8-23 ME 800A SHM to SE 422 Pinouts ...................................................................................... 8-24 HP Mux to LD585 (Black Box) Converter, to SE 422 485 Port Pinouts ............................... 8-25

EXCEPTIONS

If the wiring information in this section does not cover devices in your configuration that have been approved by WSE for connection to the SE 6000, please contact WSE customer support for assistance (see Section 7. Product Support).


8-2 Section 8: Cable Configurations

HP 8-PORT MUX TO AN HP 7OO-SERIESTERMINAL

This cable is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to an HP 700-series terminal. An 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector is at each end of the cable. One end of the cable plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) that plugs into the terminal.

CABLE PINDUTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PIN TO DB25 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (TERMINAL)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 8

3 Data terminal ready 5,6

4 Transmit data 3

5 Receive data 2

6 Data carrier detect 4

7 Clear to send 20

8 Data set ready 20


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-3

HP 8-PORT MUx TO SHMS, TO SE 708POR SE 800-SERIES

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux, two short-haul modem (SHMs), and an SE 708P or SE 800-Series. Three cable configurations are required.

The first cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) that plugs into an SHM.

The second cable connects the two SHMs. The cable can be up to two miles, and it must be dedicated (not run through a phone switch) and directly connected. Minimum wire gauge should be #20 AWG.

The third cable connects the second SHM to the SE 708P or 800-Series. Set both SHMs to DCE. 8-PORT MUx TO SHM - CABLEPINOUTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PINTO DB25 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (SHM)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 4

3 Data terminal ready 20

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 8

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 6


8-4 Section 8: Cable Configurations

SHMTO SHM

RX+ Receive data + TX+

RX- Receive data - TX

TX+ Transmit data + RX+

TX- Transmit data - RX

DB25TO DB25 (SHM TO SE 708P OR SE 800-SERIES)

SHM SE 708P or SE-800 Series

DB25 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

2

3

Data terminal ready

3

4

Transmit data

5

6

Receive data

6

7

Data carrier detect

7

8

Clear to send

8

20

Data set ready

20


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-5

HP 8-PORT MUX TO SHMS(BLACK BOX),TO HP 700-SERIESTERMINAL

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux, two Black Box SHM-B short-haul modem (SHMs), and an HP 700-Series terminal. Three cable configurations are required.

The first cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) connector that plugs into an SHM.

The second cable connects the two SHMs. The cable can be up to two miles, and it must be dedicated (not run through a phone switch) and directly connected. Minimum wire gauge should be #20 AWG.

The third cable connects the second SHM to the HP 700-Series terminal. Set both SHMs to DCE.

8-PORT MUX TO SHM - CABLEPINOUTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PINTO DB25 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (SHM)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 4

3 Data terminal ready 20

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 8

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 6


8-6 Section 8: Cable Configurations

SHMTo SHM

RX+ Receive data + TX+

RX- Receive data - TX

TX+ Transmit data + RX+

TX- Transmit data - RX

DB25To DB25 (SHMToTERMINAL)

SHM

DB25 Pin # Signal

 Terminal

DB25 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

2

3

Data terminal ready

3

4

Transmit data

5

6

Receive data

6

7

Data carrier detect

7

8

Clear to send

8

20

Data set ready

20


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-7

HP 8-PoRT MUx To DBB (BLACKBox), To SHMS (BLACK Box),To SE 708PoR SE 800-SERIES

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux, a Black Box TL-158 Data Broadcasting Box (DBB), two Black Box SHM-B short haul modems (SHMs), and an SE 708P or SE 800-Series. Four cable configurations are required.

The first cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) connector that plugs into the DBB COMM port.

The second cable is an RS-232 cable that connects the DBB to the first SHM.

The third cable connects the two SHMs. The cable can be up to two miles, and it must be dedicated (not run through a phone switch) and directly connected. Minimum wire gauge should be #20 AWG.

The fourth cable connects the second SHM to the SE 708P or SE 800-Series. Set all DBB ports to DCE.

8-PoRT MUx To DBB - CABLE PINoUTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PIN To DB25 HEADSHELL PINoUTS (DBB CoMM PoRT)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 4

3 Data terminal ready 20

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 8

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 6


8-8 Section 8: Cable Configurations


DBB SHM

DB25 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Protective ground 1

2 Transmit data 2

3 Receive data 3

4 Request to send 5

6 Data set ready 6

7 Signal ground 7

8 Receive signal detect 8

20 Data terminal ready 20

SHMTO SHM

RX+ Receive data + TX+

RX- Receive data - TX

TX+ Transmit data + RX+

TX- Transmit data - RX

DB25TO DB25 (SHM TO SE 708P OR SE 800-SERIES)

SHM Terminal

DB25 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 5

6 Receive data 6

7 Data carrier detect 7

8 Clear to send 8

20 Data set ready 20


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-9

HP 8-PoRT MuxTo DBB (BLACK Box)

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to a Black Box TL-158 Data Broadcasting Box (DBB).

The cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) connector that plugs into the DBB COMM port.

Set all DBB ports to DCE.

8-PoRT Mux To DBB - CABLE PINouTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PIN To DB25 HEADSHELL PINoUTS (DBB CoMM PoRT)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 4

3 Data terminal ready 20

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 8

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 6


8-10 Section 8: Cable Configurations

HP 8-PORT Mux To HP 8-PORT Mux

This configuration is used to connect two HP 8-port muxes (used to connect a host computer to an LC, for example). There is an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end.

8-PoRT MuxTo 8-PoRT Mux - CABLE PiNouTS

Host

RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

LC

RJ-45/8 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

6

3

Data terminal ready

7,8

4

Transmit data

5

5

Receive data

4

6

Data carrier detect

2

7

Clear to send

3

8

Data set ready

3


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-11

HP 8-PORT MuxTo SE CI-8

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to an SE CI-8.

The cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) connector that plugs into the DBB COMM port.

8-PoRT MuxTo SE CI-8 - CABLE PINouTS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal RJ-45/8 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 1

2 Request to send 2

3 Data terminal ready 3

4 Transmit data 4

5 Receive data 5

6 Data carrier detect 6

7 Clear to send 7

8 Data set ready 8

RJ-45/8 PIN To DB25 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (CI-8)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 8

3 Data terminal ready 5,6

4 Transmit data 3

5 Receive data 2

6 Data carrier detect 4

7 Clear to send 8

8 Data set ready 8


8-12 Section 8: Cable Configurations

HP 8-PORT MUx TO SE 708POR SE 800-SERIES

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to an SE 708P or SE 800-series.

The cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB25 (male) connector that plugs into the SE 708P or SE 800-series.

8-PORT MUx TO SE 708P or SE 800-Series -CABLE PINOUTS

Host

RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

SE 708P or SE 800-Series

RJ-45/8 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

2

3

Data terminal ready

3

4

Transmit data

4

5

Receive data

5

6

Data carrier detect

6

7

Clear to send

7

8

Data set ready

8


RJ-45/8 PINTO DB25 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (SE 708P or SE 800-Series)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 8

3 Data terminal ready 5,6

4 Transmit data 3

5 Receive data 2

6 Data carrier detect 4

7 Clear to send 20

8 Data set ready 20


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-13

HP 8-PORT MUX TO SE 422

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to an SE 422.

The cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to D139 (male) connector that plugs into the SE 422.

8-PORT MUX TO SE 422 -CABLE PINOUTS

Host

RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

SE 422

RJ-45/8 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

2

3

Data terminal ready

3

4

Transmit data

4

5

Receive data

5

6

Data carrier detect

6

7

Clear to send

7

8

Data set ready

8


RJ-45/8 PIN TO DB9 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (SE 422)


RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

DB9 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

5

2

Request to send

8

3

Data terminal ready

1

4

Transmit data

2

5

Receive data

3

6

Data carrier detect

4

7

Clear to send

8

8

Data set ready

4


NOTE

Jumper 1 and 6 together at SE 422.


8-14 Section 8: Cable Configurations

HP 8-PORT MUX TO BURLE CAMERA UNIT

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux to a Burle camera unit.

The cable has an 8-pin RJ-45/8 (male) connector at each end. One end plugs into the HP 8-port mux; the other into an RJ-45/8 (female) to DB9 (male) connector that plugs into the Burle console port.

8-PORTMUX TO BURLECAMERAUNIT - CABLE PINOUTS

Host

RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

Burle Camera Unit

RJ-45/8 Pin #

1

Ground 0 volts

1

2

Request to send

2

3

Data terminal ready

3

4

Transmit data

4

5

Receive data

5

6

Data carrier detect

6

7

Clear to send

7

8

Data set ready

8


RJ-45/8 PIN TO DB9 HEADSHELL PINOUTS (Burle Camera Unit)

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB9 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send No connection

3 Data terminal ready 4

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 5

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 5


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-15

HP 8-PORT Mux TO OPTO AC7 RS-232, TO RS-422/485 ADAPTER CARD

This configuration is used to connect an HP 8-port mux, an Opto AC7 RS-232, and an RS-422/ 485 adapter card.

CABLE PNO~TS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB-25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 8

3 Data terminal ready 5,6

4 Transmit data 3

5 Receive data 2

6 Data carrier detect 4

7 Clear to send 20

8 Data set ready 20

NOTE

If you have a cable where pins 2 and 3 are reversed, the AC7 provides jumpers that will reverse the pins on the AC7 end. Refer to the AC7 adapter card manual for the correct jumper settings.


8-16 Section 8: Cable Configurations

MODEM TO RDI UNIT

The Modem to RDI connection is a straight-through cable, 25-pin to 25-pin.


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-17

RDIToSE800-SERIESOR CI-1 ASERIAL PORTJ80N RDI)

NoTE

The red wire is pin 1. To connect up to three SE 800-series, use a CI-1 and connect the ACUs via the 20 mA loop.

RDI / DB-25 Connector Signal DB-25 Pin #

3 Receive data 3

2 Transmit data 2

7 Ground 0 volts 7

Norm

A standard modem cable connection for pins 1 through 8 and pins 20 between the RDI DB-25 and the 808 or CI-1 will work properly.


8-18 Section 8: Cable Configurations

HP D2042G TERMINAL/ PRINTER CABLE AONE SHIPPED WITH SYSTEM)


CABLE PINOTS

RJ-45/8 Pin #

Signal

DB-25 Pin #

1



Ground 0 volts

7

2



Request to send

8

3



Data terminal ready

5,6

4



Transmit data

3

5



Receive data

2

6



Data carrier detect

4

7

(&

8)

Clear to send

20

8

(&

7)

Data set ready

20



-Ring

indicator

-


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1

Data carrier detect

7


5

2

Receive data

8


1

3

Transmit data

5,6


6,8

4

Data terminal ready

3


2

5

Ground 0 volts

2


3

6 (& 8)

Data set ready

4


7

8 (& 6)

Clear to send

20


4

7

Request to send

20


4

9

Ring indicator





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1


Data carrier detect

8

2


Receive data

3

3


Transmit data

2

4


Data terminal ready

20

5


Ground 0 volts

7

6


Data set ready

6

7


Request to send

4

8


Clear to send

5

9


Ring indicator

22



Cable shield

1


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-21

HP D2043M US / EUROPEAN MODEM CABLE

CABLE PNOUS

RJ-45/8 Pin # Signal DB-25 Pin #

1 Ground 0 volts 7

2 Request to send 4

3 Data terminal ready 20

4 Transmit data 2

5 Receive data 3

6 Data carrier detect 8

7 Clear to send 5

8 Data set ready 6

-Ring indicator -

- Cable shield 1


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)

9&0

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1


Ground 0 volts

7


2


Request to send

4


3


Data terminal ready

20


4


Transmit data

2


5


Receive data

3


6


Data carrier detect

8


7


Clear to send

5


8


Data set ready

6



Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-23

SE CI-8TO SE 422 PINOUTS


DB25 TO DB9



CI-8

Signal

SE 422

2

Transmit data

2

3

Receive data

3

4

Request to send

1

6

DCE ready

4

7

Signal ground

5


NOTE

1. Other pins on CI-8 are not used.

2. Jumper pins 6 and 8 to pin 4 on the SE 422 side.


8-24 Section 8: Cable Configurations

ME 800A SHMTo SE 422 PINouTS

DB25 To DB9

ME 800A Signal SE 422

1 Ground -

2 Transmit 3

3 Receive 2

4 Request to send 7

5 Clear to send 8

6 DCE ready 6

7 Signal ground 5

8 RSLD 1

20 DTE ready 4


Section 8: Cable Configurations 8-25

HP MuxTo LD585 (BLACK Box) CONVERTER, TO SE 422 485 PORT PINouTS

RJ-45/8 To DB25 HP Mux

LD485

LD485

SE 422

485 Port

1

Ground

7

J~mpered

RD A

2






2

RTS out

4

RD B


3

DTE ready

20

TD A


4

XMIT DATA

2

TD B

1




Jumpered







5

RECV DATA

3

Ground

6

6

RSLD

8



7

CTS

5

Note: A = Negative Polarity; B = Positive Polarity

8

DCE ready

6





Section 9: Connection Diagrams 9-1

SECTION 9: CONNECTION

DIAGRAMS

This section gives the wiring / port connections for the SE 6000 product series. Detailed are:

6018

60xx/6100

6200

6300




Section 9: Connection Diagrams 9-3

 Field

Devices

or Poller 1

 Field

Devices

or Poller 2







EMS Management Journal

Copyright© 2004 HealthAnalytics LLC

COLLECTIVE REVIEW

Volume 1, Number 1 January -March, 2004


Operations Research Models for

the Deployment of Emergency

Services Vehicles

Jeffrey B. Goldberg, MS, PhD

ABSTRACT

This paper is a review of the development and current state of the art in operations research for deployment and planning analysis pertaining to Emergency Medical Services and Fire Departments. These public safety systems have received a great deal of attention in the operations research community since they provide important services to people and the problems are amenable to mathematical modeling and solution. The concentration here is on both analytical work and applications. Modeling and problem assumptions are emphasized rather than clever solution procedures and mathematical derivations. This paper is organized both chronologically and by modeling approach / problem issue, so the interested reader can easily trace the chain of modeling improvements that are most closely applicable to their particular problem. The bibliography contains over 115 relevant books, articles, and web sites that represent over 35 years of work from all of the leading operations research analysts and practitioners in the field.

Keywords: deployment, ambulances, dispatch, emergency medical services

Citation: Goldberg J: Operations Research Models for the Deployment of Emergency Services Vehicles.

2004 Jan-Mar EMS Mgmnt J 1(1):20-39.

PROBLEM MOTIVATION AND BACKGROUND

   The design and operation of emergency service vehicle systems has been a vibrant area for operations research (OR) professionals since the mid 1960’s. The primary concern of operations research is to develop and solve mathematical models to help make decisions. In this applications area, there have been 100’s of journal papers covering models for important decisions such as:

* the location of fixed position fire stations and possibly variable position ambulance bases;

* the dispatching of vehicles;

* the number of vehicles of different types, staffing and equipment being carried; and

* how and when to re-deploy resources under different system states.

   The reason for the large amount of work is quite simple. The systems are important to the public and hence designing and operating them well leads to a clear sense of purpose for the researcher.

   The goal of this paper is to share this body of knowledge with emergency medical services (EMS) managers, fire service (FS) mangers, and their physician medical directors; three groups that may not be familiar with this body of work from the operations research field. In the past, there have been many papers reviewing this literature; however these have generally been targeted at operations research professionals. The approach of this paper is different in that it is organized along tasks and problem areas that are necessary for designing and operating effective systems. The focus is on the problems and the underlying modeling assumptions as opposed to the specific mathematics of the models. Once the capabilities of the models are known, then the interested reader can get more information as needed. Also, the paper contains sections covering work on

Presented: Sympoisum on the Future of EMS and Fire Deployment and Operations at the 2003 EMS Performance Conference & 1st Annual NEMSMA Meeting, Tampa, FL, November 9, 2003

Author: Associate Professor, Department of Systems and Industrial Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona; jeff@sie.arizona.edu; 520-621-6547; http://www.sie.arizona.edu/faculty/goldberg.html Manuscript received: 09 November 2003; Accepted for publication: 14 November 2003

Online Access: http://www.emsmj.com/v1n1/deployment/default.htm

20


Goldberg: Operations Research Models

data collection, building valid models, successful applications, and past review papers. Potential gaps in the literature are discussed where appropriate. The discussion for each topic proceeds chronologically to give the reader a feel for the progressive improvements in the body of work. For simplicity, each paper is contained in only one section, however, there are instances where there could be alternatives and the most appropriate section has been chosen.

    The discussion centers mainly on EMS, however much of the material is relevant to the FS as well. One section contains models for managing multi-equipment types and here both FS and EMS are mentioned. Police deployment models are often fundamentally different in that they must allow for a patrolling vehicle as opposed to the stationary vehicles normally seen in FS and EMS situations. The materials in this paper are generally applicable to any system where the vehicles sit at a location and wait to be called into service.

SYSTEM OPERATION AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

The scope of this paper is based on the standard emergency call process:

1. The call (demand) comes to the system via 911 or some other mechanism.

2. The severity of the call is estimated.

3. The dispatcher evaluates the system status and determines the appropriate vehicle(s) to send to the scene.

4. Upon arriving on scene, service is provided.

5. The vehicle(s) may or may not provide transport to a hospital.

6. After completion of service (and transport) the vehicle goes into an idle state and returns to a predetermined location to await another call.

    The decisions of dispatching and vehicle location are critical factors in system success. If one cannot do both of these well, there will be inefficiencies in the system. Note that both types of decisions must be made in a dynamic environment. However, significant planning can be done a priori. For example, standard dispatch strategies (such as "send the closest idle vehicle") can be evaluated for situations where they might not be the best policy. When these situations arise, the dispatcher can be alerted to go off of the standard strategy and onto a contingent strategy. Vehicle base locations can also be evaluated using specifics of situations and again, the system manager can be alerted on cases where it is better to go off of the standard plan.

    The primary objective of EMS and FS deployment is to get the appropriate equipment to calls in a safe and timely fashion. The issues of selecting the appropriate equipment are not the focus of this paper. Generally, the dispatcher has some tools to make these decisions, based on the phone triage process and the state of the system. Also, vehicle safety is not considered here because it is assumed that the vehicle will arrive on scene in a safe manner. The final issue of timeliness is the primary objective that is used in operations research models. All of the OR typically makes the following assumptions:

* There is a standard time, T, such that if the first vehicle arrives on scene within T minutes, then the call service is deemed a success. The specific value of T may vary with the type of call as more serious calls have lower T values.

* The area is partitioned into zones. These zones may take on any shape, but all calls from a zone originate in the population center. All travel to and from the zone is measured from the zone center point. Data is collected and aggregated at the zone level.

There are many ways that timeliness is measured. For example, one can operate to:

* Minimize the total or average time to serve all calls.

* Minimize the maximum travel time to any single call (ensures that no demand point is too far from equipment).

* Maximize Area Coverage - cover as many zones in the area as possible within T minutes of travel.

* Maximize Call Coverage - cover as many calls in the area as possible within T minutes of travel.

EMS Management Journal 21 January - March, 2004


Goldberg: Operations Research Models


   Note that the 3rd and 4th examples are not equivalent since some zones in the area may have markedly different call loads. In reality, each of these examples are surrogates for the true objective of reducing as much morbidity and mortality as possible. The assumption is that if calls are answered and serviced quickly, then this will lead to better clinical outcomes, patient satisfaction and compliance to regulatory standards for response time performance.

   Besides timeliness, there are other objectives of EMS and FS deployment systems. These include:

* Minimize Cost – Cost is primarily a function of the amount of labor (man-hours) needed to staff the unit-hours used per year, the number of base stations that must be opened and maintained, and the number of vehicles that must be purchased, supported, and serviced. Labor is typically the largest cost (ReVelle [1989]).

* Maximize Coverage Equity – Here, the system manager must balance area performance against the performance in a smaller group of zones. For example, it may not be acceptable to have zones that are poorly served while having the area at a reasonable level and some zones that are extremely well served. By changing decisions, more equitable systems can be designed. Marsh and Schilling [1994] contains a broad review of coverage equity issues in EMS and FS systems.

* Maximizing Labor Equity – Here it is important for the system manager to balance the workload for all employees in the system. This reduces employee burnout and hard feelings.

MODELING ISSUES - GRANULARITY, DATA REQUIREMENTS, AND VALIDITY

   It is often difficult and expensive to experiment with an actual system. Mistakes are costly both in money and in potential morbidity and mortality. Collecting data to verify a good system might take months of data collection. Instead of experimenting on the actual system, OR professionals generally build models of systems that can be implemented and experimented with on a computer. System errors can be found on the model before they are implemented on the actual system. It is generally well worth the cost of building the model, collecting data, and running the model as opposed to trying to experiment on the actual system.

   When using a model to help make decisions, there is significant work that must be done before any analysis can begin. First one must structure the granularity of the model and define zones. Next, one gathers demand, service, and travel time data based on that structure. Dai, Wang, and Yang, [1994] discuss a decision support system and data base structure that can be used for planning and for operational decisions. Third, the model is implemented; usually in software. Finally, one validates the model to convince the decision maker that model output has some correlation with the output of the actual system. Each of these steps has been the topic of OR studies.

GRANULARITY OF THE ZONE STRUCTURE

The zone structure is often formed based on the convenience of the model builder or the data

collection system. Since most urban and suburban EMS and FS systems have tens of thousands of calls per year, it is impossible to model down to the call level. Instead, all calls in a "small area"

are aggregated to a single zone.



1

1

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1

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Figure 1 - Call Aggregation with a Vehicle Location

     

At first glance this looks like a minor issue in modeling, however, looks can be

V deceiving. Consider the aggregation in Figure 1. Here, we have 9 calls, one in each of the nine address blocks. Instead of using these individual locations, we aggregate all calls to the center of the blocks and this is our zone.


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   The problem here is that timeliness measured on the aggregated system may greatly overestimate the timeliness of the actual system. Consider the 8-minute call coverage criteria typically used in EMS systems and assume that a single vehicle is located exactly 7.5 minutes from the center of the blocks directly to the right. In the aggregated problem, all calls would be considered covered since the vehicle is 7.5 minutes away. In the actual problem, calls in the left column and calls in blocks directly above and below the center block may not be covered as these travel values may be larger than 7.5 minutes. Similar examples using travel time or vehicle utilization as the criteria can easily be constructed. As the zones become smaller, the inaccuracies due to aggregation become smaller as well. Currently, it is reasonable to solve problems with 100's of zones (depending on the model).

   This problem was first realized in Hillsman and Rhoda [1978] and they defined 3 specific types of errors:

* A errors – errors in distance measurement for the call since the original call location is not the location of the aggregated calls.

* B errors – errors in distance measurement due to not knowing the true location when a vehicle or facility is located at an aggregated zone.

* C errors – errors in dispatching due to not knowing the correct distance from vehicles or bases to calls in aggregated zones.

   When the criteria is total system travel distance, Current and Schilling [1987] show how to eliminate A and B errors, and Hodgson and Neuman [1993] use a GIS approach to eliminate C errors. Francis and Lowe [1992] derive bounds on how poorly the model approximates the actual objective. Erkut and Bozkaya [1999] discuss A and C errors and give practical strategies for reducing the errors and setting up models that have small errors. Note that as computing power increases and larger models can be formulated and solved, less aggregation is needed and this problem becomes less critical. At this time, aggregation can still cause problems in models that use coverage or travel time objectives.

TRAVEL TIME MODELING

   Models require estimates of travel time to make decisions concerning dispatching order, determine coverage areas, and compute estimates of the criteria. Without accurate travel time estimates, most models would have little predictive value and the decisions that they suggest would be suspect at best. There has been little OR work in this area, especially given its importance (there is surely additional work in the transportation literature, but that is not the focus of this paper). Travel time is generally assumed to be known exogenously and occurs on a street network. When solving real problems, this simply is not sufficient. Often this data exists (at least in rough form) at a county government agency responsible for traffic management and planning.

   Volz [1971] uses linear regression to determine speed coefficients on different road types (for example, freeway limited access roads, four or more lane roads with at least two lanes in each direction, three lane roads with a left turn lane, and local two lane streets) and then uses these coefficients with an estimate of the road types on the travel route. Goldberg et. al. [1990] uses this approach in predicting the mean and standard deviation of base to zone travel times in the Tucson EMS system. Kolesar [1973 and 1975] presents models based on regression studies in New York. For short trips, Kolesar [1975] suggests that, travel time is proportional to the square root of the distance traveled, while for longer trips, travel time is proportional to the distance traveled. Chelst and Jarvis [1979] estimate the probability distribution of resulting travel times (after the model is solved, these will be the travel trips one expects to realize) for urban emergency service systems. Their work is based on the results obtained from the Hypercube model of Larson [1974] used to predict the probability of different system busy states. Repede and Bernardo [1994] perform a detailed model of travel in Louisville using a 47,000 call database and the UNIFIT curve fitting package. Recently, Van Buer et. al. [1996] considered the problem of locating 1-way streets and cul-de-sacs so as to enable all emergency services reasonable access while reducing crime.

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DEMAND DATA MODELING AND PREDICTION

   The ability to predict demand is of paramount importance; however there has been little systemic OR study in this area. The typical approach is to tally past demand for each zone over some time period (a year or six months), and then assume that future demand will behave similarly to past demand. Similarly includes both quantity and spatial similarity. Even when the quantity of demand is changed, this is usually done in a proportional manner (for example, assume that demand in each zone will increase by 10%).

   The initial study in the OR literature is Kamenetzky, Shuman, and Wolfe [1982]. They develop a regression model with four independent variables; area population, area employment rate, % of the population white and married, and housing units per area resident. They perform transformations on these variables and develop a model with an excellent R2 value of .92. They also predict demand by category of call. Mabert [1985] models the demand for police calls in Indianapolis. Box-Jenkins time series models are used to predict the number of calls per day, however there is no attempt at predicting the spatial distribution.

   Although not within the scope of this paper, there has been work in this area in the healthcare literature. Puig-Junoy, Saez, and Martinez-Garcia [1998] formulates a utility theory model to explain why people use the emergency room as a substitute for their primary care physician. This approach might be used to help explain why people use the 911 system for "less than emergency" calls. Also, growth and city planning models could be used to estimate demand for zones that have no call history.

MODEL VALIDITY

   Model validity refers to the model's ability to predict output and to make decisions that will work as well as predicted in the actual system. This is a key step in the modeling process. Unless the model makes valid predictions then the model will have little to no value.

Almost all models have "face validity" where the model looks reasonable to the casual

observer. The next level is "replication validity." Here, the analyst inputs data on past operation of the actual system and the model replicates the operation of the system including:

* Predicting coverage and travel time close to those realized in the actual system.

* Making the same dispatching decisions as the actual system made.

* Predicting vehicle utilization close to that realized in the actual system.

   The final level is "prediction validity" where the analyst inputs data for a future system and the model predicts how the future system will behave. Often future validity cannot be fully placation determined until the system is implemented. Hence if the model has face and replication validity, then the decision maker is generally convinced of the quality of the model's output.

   There have been many studies in model validity since the typical models used in planning require making significant assumptions (these will be discussed later). In Jarvis [1975], it is shown that a spatial queueing model can predict vehicle utilizations usually to within a few percent. Halpern [1977] shows on small systems that when you assume that all calls have the same service time then the vehicle busy probability estimates may not be accurate when the assumption is not satisfied. Goldberg et. al. [1990], Valenzuela et. al. [1990], and Repede and Bernardo [1994] write about high precision validity studies with actual data in Tucson and Louisville. ReVelle [1989] discusses modeling developments to improve the validity of models that use area coverage and call coverage criteria. Borras and Pastor [2002] compare the output of probabilistic covering models to the output of more detailed previously validated models. They show that the probabilistic models are highly accurate. Saydam and Aytug [2003] show how to improve accuracy when measuring expected coverage. Chiyoshi, Galvao, and Morabito [2003] show that when vehicles are busy a high percentage of the time, then popular covering models do not predict coverage well even when they include features specifically designed to remedy the accuracy problem.

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RAND REPORTS

   In the late 1960's and the 1970's, a powerful group of OR analysts worked at the RAND Institute in New York. The works that they did were strong both in theory and in application and covered a wide spectrum of uses in EMS, FS, and police planning and operations. The following models were distributed and used extensively throughout the country (Chaiken [1978]):

* PAM - Parametric Allocation Model - used for planning the number of fire bases or ambulances that were needed in an urban area.

* FHSEM - Firehouse Site Evaluation Model - covering model to determine firehouse locations

* FIRESIM - Simulation Model of Fire Department Operations - detailed simulation model to evaluate a single deployment of base locations

* Hypercube Queueing Model - a model that tracks the status of vehicles and predicts the fraction of time that the system is in each state (to be discussed later as this is one of the foundation OR models for EMS deployment)

   There is a large body of work that came out of RAND during this period and some of it was also published in the general OR literature. The NFPA Fire Station Location Bibliography [1996] has a large list of these papers including technical reports, users manuals for software, and applications reports. We do not provide additional details here as these models have become a bit dated, however they form much of the basis of the initial thoughts on the problems of designing and operating EMS and FS systems.

COMPUTER SIMULATION MODELS

   The term "computer simulation model" is used in the OR literature to describe models that have a high degree of detail and try to precisely mimic the operation of the actual system. These are generally tied to a detailed database and coded in a computer language that is tailored for building detailed models. They have a high degree of face validity and can obtain extremely accurate replication validation results.

   These models are descriptive in that they take a system design and set of operating rules and then compute the performance of that single system on any desired criteria. To find high quality solutions, one must embed the simulation model in a search routine to test different designs and rule structures. The difficulty with these models is that they often take large amounts of computer time to obtain estimates of system parameters and hence this search routine is also a long process. If one has the computing resources, the detailed data set and the time to search for solutions, then simulation is an excellent tool for obtaining high quality designs and operating rules.

   Savas [1969] and Fitzsimmons [1971] were early users of simulation modeling for EMS systems. Berlin and Liebman [1974] used simulation to evaluate solutions that they obtained from a simple covering model. This approach of using simulation on a small set of solutions found by other less precise modeling tools is a popular approach. Monarchi, Hendrick, and Plane [1977], Fitsimmons and Stikar [1982], and Repede and Bernardo [1994] all have an approach similar to Berlin and Liebman in that they use simulation to evaluate decisions made with the help of other models.

   Trudeau, Rousseau, Ferland, and Choquette [1989] cover a solution process that includes data collection as well as simulation modeling for planning and operation of an EMS system. Erkut and Polat [1992] built a detailed simulation model that was used in Istanbul, Turkey to help minimize total travel time and the percentage of calls that are served late. Goldberg et. al. [1990a] discuss a similar model used in Tucson, AZ to help validate another faster less detailed model. Zaki, Cheng, and Parker [1997] describe a detailed model that was used in the Richmond, VA area. Also, this work has the ability to consider pre-empted calls and contains a validation study as well as estimates for travel time distributions.

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Goldberg: Operations Research Models

ANALYTIC MODELS FOR PLANNING

   The large majority of OR work is in the area of "models for planning." Here, the decisions are generally for determining the location of vehicle bases and the equipment assigned to each base. The problem is static in that a single set of demand and travel time data is used in the model. Mathematical programming is generally used to find optimal solutions to the models and when the models are difficult to solve, heuristic procedures* are used. The term "optimal solution" is in some sense misleading. The solution is only as good as the underlying assumptions of the model. If these assumptions do not produce a valid model, then the solution found may have little correlation to optimal solutions in the real problem. There is generally a modeling tradeoff in that high validity high precision models (e.g., simulation models) cannot be easily searched for optimal solutions. To guarantee optimality, usually one must have a rather stylized model with a significant assumption set. Larson and Stevenson [1972] suggest that "real problems" have rather flat objective functions and many solutions exhibit near optimal behavior.

   Toregas et. al. [1971] first proposed the "set covering model." Their objective is to minimize the number of vehicles needed to cover all zones. In essence, they are minimizing cost and ensuring a fair coverage. Each potential vehicle location has a set of demands that it covers. All demand points are equally important, and a single static covering distance (or time) for each demand is used. If even one vehicle covers a demand, then that is sufficient, even though sometimes the vehicle may be busy. Hence this model generally overestimates coverage. This model typically looks like laying out "travel circles" to cover all demands. Neebe [1988] finds all solutions to this model as the covering distance standard varies. As expected, as you increase the covering standard, then fewer vehicles are needed.

   Church and ReVelle [1974] take somewhat of a dual approach. They hold the number of vehicles fixed (and hence fix costs) and then locate the vehicles to cover as many calls as possible. The model is called the "maximal covering model," and this objective can result in some zones that are not covered. As in Toregas et. al. [1971], a zone is covered if even one vehicle is located within the travel standard. There is no allowance for busy vehicles.

   In both the set covering model and the maximal covering model, it is assume that there is a single time period. Since location decisions often involve extensive capital costs, one might want to consider a multiple period problem over a long horizon (multiple years and decades), Schilling [1980] considers a model that is divided into time periods (years for example). The work extends the maximal covering model to consider a different location set for each time period. The model is multi-objective in that there is an objective to maximize total demand covered in each period. It includes constraints that limit the total number of vehicles placed in each time period and ensure that if you locate a vehicle at a site in time period t, then you will also use the site in time periods t+1, t+2 ... T. Current, Tatick, and ReVelle, [1997] model the case of locating a set of vehicles over a long horizon when the total number of vehicles and facilities is uncertain. They concentrate on finding the locations for near-term decisions so that the system will be in a good situation when the next decision is to be made. The model objective includes construction and operations costs.

   Both set covering and maximal covering are "integer programming models" since all decisions are required to be integer valued (either you locate at a site or you don't, there is no "half location"). Typically, these types of problems are mathematically difficult. ReVelle [1993] shows that even though the problems can be difficult, in most instances the solution can be obtained by readily available software for real sized problems (100's of demand points and 50 potential vehicle sites). Galvano and ReVelle [1996] discuss a Lagrangian heuristic for cases when the maximal covering model is difficult. A Lagrangian heuristic is a process where one relaxes restrictions (constraints) on the solution in order to get a starting point to generate alternatives that satisfy all restrictions. The technique is commonly use to solve problems where the decisions are constrained to be integer valued.

The key deficiencies in the set covering and maximal covering models are:

*Heuristic procedures may find good solutions, but are not necessarily the best and are often performed by trial-and-error

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* The use of a single objective, when in fact, both cost and performance are key criteria.

* The inability to consider sometimes busy vehicles and therefore uncovered demands even though the model claims full coverage. This also leads to the assumption that the closest vehicle to each zone is the only vehicle that ever answers calls for that zone.

* Each call requires a single vehicle and only a single type of equipment is considered. The real problem has multiple equipment types that cooperate and share calls.

* All demand, travel time, and service time data are assumed to be deterministic. In the real problem, demand timing and location are both random (but somewhat predictable and modelable based on past data). Service times and travel times also are random and sometimes highly varying.

* Using a single set of data leads to a single set of locations and hence these models have

no ability to analyze dynamic real-time decisions such as repositioning.

Works that try to remedy these deficiencies are discussed below.

MODELS THAT INCORPORATE MULTIPLE OBJECTIVES

Many of the models discussed in the remainder of section 4 include multiple objectives. Often

these objectives are combined into a single objective using a weighting factor. For example, if f(x) and g(x) are objective functions, then if w is between 0 and 1, then:

w * f(x) + (1-w) * g(x)

   is a combined objective (this is called the “weighting method”). Another approach with multiple objectives is to find the set of non-dominated solutions (called the “Pareto set”). A solution x is non-dominated if no other solution is better or equal to x on all objectives. The final approach used is called "goal programming." Here, each objective is a goal with a prescribed level for success. For example, if the goal is to minimize average travel time, then a specific level might be to have average travel time less than or equal to 8 minutes. The user then specifies the "cost" if the goal is not met and this cost may be related to the magnitude of the unmet amount. Usually, the total cost of unmet goals is minimized. The difficulty in goal programming is in specifying the cost of not meeting the goal.

   Schilling, ReVelle, Cohen, and Elzinga [1980] extend the maximal covering model by dividing the demand in each zone into two call types, each with a different priority. They then formulate two objectives - maximize the covering of the highest priority calls and maximize the covering of next lower priority of calls. They then find the set of non-dominated solutions. They also consider two vehicle types as well as a budget constraint for purchasing new equipment. Daskin and Stern [1981] extend the set covering model to include an objective of maximizing the number of zones that are covered by more than one vehicle. They first solve a set covering problem to find the minimum number of vehicles needed for covering. Since there are usually multiple sets of locations that attain full coverage with this minimum number of vehicles, they then choose a particular solution by finding the location set that maximizes the number of zones with multiple coverage. One can also use the weighting method to combine the objectives of minimizing the number of vehicles and maximizing the number of multiple covered zones. Taylor, Baker, and Clayton [1989], develop a model for allocating ambulances to sectors in a county. The model is more of a macro location rather than specific site location since it has only 10 sectors. Goal programming is used with objectives of minimizing system response time, staying within a pre-specified budget, and keeping vehicle workloads low.

   Revelle, Schweitzer, and Snyder [1996] extend the maximal covering model to the case where facility sites may not be used to cover their own zones. This model has application in disaster situations where if a zone has a call, then everything within the zone is hit, not just a single element within the zone. The multiple objectives considered are maximizing the demand covered and maximizing the number of vehicle sites that are at least double covered. Badri, Mortagy, and Alsayed [1998] develop an extensive goal programming model that includes minimizing fixed and recurring operating costs, maximizing demand coverage, minimizing system travel distance and maximum travel time, and minimizing the use of areas where water availability might be a problem (application in Dubai, UAE).

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   When appropriate, works that use multiple objectives will be noted in the remaining subsections.

MATH PROGRAMMING MODELS THAT INCORPORATE BACK-UP COVERAGE AND BUSY VEHICLES

   Church and Weaver [1985] extend the maximal coverage model and develop the "vector assignment p-median model." Here, it is assumed that a zone's demand will be served x% of the time by its closest vehicle, y% of the time by the 2nd closest vehicle, ...One must estimate these %'s using another model or past experience. The model locates a fixed number of vehicles so that the total travel distance is minimized. Clearly the approach is not valid when the %'s change based on the specific set of locations chosen.

   Hogan and ReVelle [1986] extend the maximal covering model and the set covering model by adding a second objective to maximize the number calls covered by 2 or more vehicles. They combine the objectives using weighting factors and explore how the solution changes as the weight on each of the two objectives changes. Also, they add constraints to model a secondary coverage criteria so that all calls are covered within the secondary time limit (for example 15 minutes) while trying to maximize the number of calls covered within the shorter primary limit (for example 8 minutes). Gendreau, Laporte, and Semet, [1997], develop a search for a model that maximizes the number of double covered calls.

   Pirkul and Schilling [1988] model the objective of maximizing covered calls subject to limits on the number of calls that each vehicle can answer (as measured by the number of calls it may serve in the study horizon) and a requirement for backup coverage. Narasimhan, Pirkul, and Schilling [1992] extend the model to include the objective of maximizing the number of covered calls of different service levels. They include constraints on the number of vehicles, the call capacity of each vehicle, and defining coverage for different levels of service. Here, a vehicle may provide, primary, secondary, or both levels of service and each level may have a different coverage time standard.

   Daskin [1983] assumes that each vehicle is busy with probability equal to p. One can estimate p accurately by estimating the total workload (travel and service time) divided by the total work time available. Given p and the number of vehicles that cover a demand zone, one can estimate the probability that the zone is covered by computing the probability that at least one of the covering vehicles will be idle. This computation is simplified by assuming that the vehicles operate independently and this is generally called the "independence assumption." It is clear that the assumption is not entirely valid since as nearby vehicles are busy, it is more likely that a vehicle is busy since it now has a large primary coverage area. Daskin develops a heuristic procedure for finding the best set of locations assuming that the number of vehicles is fixed. The model maximizes the expected demand covered (the model is called the "maximal expected covering model") and hence is builds on Church and ReVelle [1974]. The paper also considers how the coverage changes as the number of vehicles changes.

   ReVelle and Hogan [1989] extend the maximal expected covering model. First, all vehicles are assumed to have equal busy probability. Then a constraint is formed to ensure that each zone is covered with probability p. For example, assume that vehicles are busy 20% of the time and you want a zone covered 95% of the time. Then if only one vehicle covers the zone, the probability of coverage is only 80% since 20% of the time, the covering vehicle is busy. If you have 2 vehicles covering, then the zone is covered 96% of the time; 80% by the first vehicle and 16% (80% of the remaining 20% ). So, to meet the 95% constraint, you need 2 or more covering vehicles for the zone. For any busy probability and any coverage level, it is simple to compute the number of covering vehicles required. The model is then extended to include the case where vehicles have unequal busy probabilities; however it is still assumed that for any zone, all vehicles serving that zone have equal busy probabilities (called the "zone based busy" assumption). Then one can form the identical constraints to the first model, but the number of covering vehicles required for each zone may be different (if the busy probability is lower, then fewer vehicles are required to get to p since the closest vehicles answer a higher fraction of calls). This assumption

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on equal busy probability for all vehicles covering a zone is problematic in that the same vehicle is assume to have two different busy probabilities depending on which zone it is covering. Ball and Lin [1993] formulate a model similar to ReVelle and Hogan [1989] as it includes a constraint on the number of covering vehicles to ensure that calls are covered with probability p. This model also uses the zone based busy assumption to derive the coverage reliability constraint. ReVelle and Hogan [1989a] use a similar approach to extend the set covering model to include coverage probability.

   Marianov and ReVelle [1994] extend the set covering model to ensure that each demand has a vehicle actually available within the time standard, with probability p. The objective of minimizing the required number of servers remains the same. Queuing theory is applied to the development of the availability constraints so that one does not need to assume that vehicles are independent (as was done in Revelle and Hogan [1989] and Daskin [1983]). Instead, the model uses the zone based busy assumption. Silva and Serra [2003] extend the Marianov and Revelle [1994] work to include multiple call priorities. Marianov and ReVelle [1996] extend ReVelle and Hogan [1989] by using queuing theory to develop the required coverage constraints. The zone based busy assumption is still required. Marianov and Serra [1998] extend the work of Marianov and ReVelle [1996] to include decisions on base location and decisions on allocating customers to bases. The bases behave as queuing systems so calls may wait in line. Marianov and Serra [2002] use the techniques in their [1998] work and extend the set covering model to include minimizing the number of facilities and the number of vehicles. Constraints on queue length are also included. In all of the Marianov papers in this paragraph, all demands assigned to a base must go to that base, regardless of the busyness of the base. This limits the validity of these models in an EMS situation.

MODELS THAT CONSIDER MULTIPLE VEHICLE TYPES AND MULTIPLE VEHICLES PER CALL

   Schilling et. al. [1979] extend the maximal coverage model and consider both facility location and equipment allocation to facilities. Their model is called "FLEET" and considers two types of equipment (ALS and BLS for example). The objective is to maximize the amount of demand that is covered by both types of vehicles. There is a fixed number of each type of equipment and a fixed number of sites to open. Each equipment type has a different coverage standard. Facility location costs are assumed to be equal for all possible site locations, so once the number of sites is fixed the location cost is fixed.

   Charnes and Storbeck [1980] consider a goal programming model. They locate a fixed number of ALS and BLS vehicles so that the goal for ALS coverage is met for each zone and the goal for BLS coverage is met for zones that are not covered by ALS vehicles. There is an implied cost of not meeting the different coverage goals and the model tries to minimize the overall cost of not meeting coverage goals. The model builder must determine the specific cost of not meeting goals. Also, Storbeck [1982] uses a goal programming model to evaluate the tradeoff in having some zones with multiple coverage and some zones with no coverage given the cost of having no coverage is known. Moore and Revelle [1982] considers the "hierarchical service location problem." This model is an adjustment of the FLEET model and considers a demand covered if it is covered by either type of vehicle as opposed to both types. The goal is to minimize the amount of demand that is not covered. Instead of fixing the number of vehicles of each type, a constraint is included to ensure that the budget is not violated. The model uses an assumption that the potential site locations are known. One can solve the model for a number of budget levels and see the tradeoff between coverage and expense.

   Marianov and ReVelle [1992] model the simultaneous location of engines and ladder trucks and includes limits on the number of vehicles at each location. The approach is an extension of Hogan and ReVelle [1986] model for double coverage. Coverage in this model requires two truck companies and three engine companies within the standard response distance. When busy vehicles are included in the model, then the coverage requirement is modified using an approach similar to that used in ReVelle and Hogan [1989]. ReVelle and Snyder [1995] construct the "FAST model" to locate both fire and ambulance vehicles. The model is multiobjective in that it attempts to

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maximize call coverage for fire and call coverage for ambulances. Instead of finding one "optimal" solution using a weighting method, the approach is to generate all solutions that are "efficient" in that there is no other solution this is better on both objectives. This set of solutions (generally termed the "Pareto set" frontier) is given to the decision maker(s) who then make the trade-off and select a single alternative. Constraints include the number of vehicles of each type, a construction budget for stations, and the notion that each site can only be for ambulance or fire trucks. Jayaraman and Stinastava [1995] extend Daskin's maximal expected coverage model to include primary and secondary vehicles. The objective is to maximize the sum of calls that are primary and secondary covered. Primary coverage is defined to have "enough" primary within the primary time standard and secondary coverage is similarly defined. Constraints include limits on the number of primary and secondary vehicles and the number of facilities.

   Serra [1996] defines the "coherent covering location model." Here, there are two types of vehicles, ALS and BLS for example. ALS vehicles can provide ALS and BLS service while BLS vehicles provide only BLS service. The model has two criteria, maximize call coverage by ALS vehicles and maximize call coverage by an ALS or BLS vehicle. There are limits on the number of ALS and BLS vehicles and a distance standard that ensures that BLS vehicles are located near ALS vehicles (this is the "coherent" part of the model). The notion of coverage depends on the service type as each has its own acceptable distance standard. Mandell [1998] considers a similar ALS/BLS system with the same coverage requirements. The model includes constraints similar to those in Revelle and Hogan [1989] to ensure reliable coverage in the presence of busy vehicles as well as a queuing model to estimate the precise probability of successful coverage. The work of Mandell represents the most advanced of the static planning models for ALS/BLS systems.

   Amiri [1998] formulates a model to minimize the cost of setting up and operating facilities and includes primary and secondary vehicles and primary and secondary service levels. Each demand must be covered by both a primary and secondary vehicle. Marianov and Serra [2001] develop a model to locate high and low level servers and allocate zones to either type of server. The servers operate like a queuing system and calls may wait in line. The objective is to minimize the cost of opening and operating facilities. Both models have limited applicability to EMS systems as demands must go to the assigned facility and not the closest idle facility.

   Batta and Mannur [1990] extend both the maximal covering model and the set covering model to the case where calls require multiple units of the same type. When multiple units are involved, coverage depends on the response order for the call. For example if a call requires 3 units, then the call can be considered covered if the first unit is within 5 minutes, the second unit within 7 minutes and the third unit within 10 minutes. The specific time standards can differ for any system and must be given for each call and each arriving vehicle.

MODELS THAT CONSIDER PARAMETERS THAT ARE RANDOM

Hypercube Approaches

   Larson [1974] introduces the "Hypercube model" for evaluating the performance of a set of base locations. Like simulations, this model is descriptive and must be embedded in an optimization framework in order to search for good solutions. The model assumes that calls come to the system based on a Poisson process (as opposed to the deterministic assumptions of all previously discussed works in section 4) and that service time for each call is exponentially distributed with mean ì . (A Poisson process is a standard process used to model arrivals to a system. It is the result of having a large number of potential customers, N, where each has a small probability, p, of using the system in a short time interval. The product N*p, denoted by ?, is called the “intensity of the process” and is the average number of arrivals per unit time. Given ?, it is a simple matter to calculate the probability distribution on the number of arrivals in any time period, t, as this follows a Poission distribution with a mean of ?*t.). Larson uses these assumptions to formulate a large model. with a state for every possible combination of idle and busy vehicles. For example, if there are 5 vehicles, then the state (1, 0, 1, 1, 0) corresponds to vehicles 1, 3, and 4 being busy and vehicles 2 and 5 idle. If a call arrives when the system is in this state, then it will be served

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by either vehicle 2 or 5, depending on the location of the call relative to the location of the two idle vehicles. In general, the model has 2N states where N is the number of vehicles. When N is even 20, this is computationally difficult. The class of models is called “Markov Models” due to the assumption that the probability of going to any future combination of busy and idle vehicles is due only to the current combination and the probability that future events occur. The manner in which we arrived at the current combination is not relevant in predicting future states (this memoryless property in which the future does not depend on the past other than through the current state is called the “Markov Property”).

   In Hypercube, each call is assumed to require one vehicle and it is assumed that each zone has a unique preference ordering of the available vehicles. This unique preference order simply implies that for any call, there is a dispatch preference order. The dispatcher will go down the order and dispatch the first idle vehicle on the list. Generally, the preference is distance based, but this is not required in the model. There could be a difficulty if two vehicles were equally preferred for a call and Burwell, Jarvis, and McKnew [1993] extend Hypercube to consider co-located servers and dispatch ties. The output of the Hypercubemodel is the probability of being in any state state (combination of busy and idle vehicles) and this irobability can then be used to compute the traditional criteria of system travel time, system coverage, vehicle workload and busy probabilities, and the number of non-first-choice dispatches in the system.

   To remedy the computational difficulties of Hypercube, Larson [1975] develops the "A-Hypercube, the Hypercube approximation model." The model consists of equations to compute the busy probability of each vehicle. The key extension in this work is the development of factors (called "Q-factors") that can be included in models and used to relax the assumption that vehicle busy probabilities are independent. The model still requires that the mean service time be a single value for all calls, however one can do a calibration procedure to estimate the appropriate service time. Goldberg and Szidarovsky [1991] demonstrates the convergence of the computational methods used in A-Hypercube.

   Batta, Dolan, and Krishnamurthy [1989] combine the ideas in A-Hypercube with those in Daskin's expected covering model. This new model remedies the independence assumption in Daskin's model by including Larson's Q-factors in the objective and the authors build a heuristic to find good sets of locations. Benveniste [1985] extends A-Hypercube by adding the objective of minimizing system travel distance and developing in an optimization strategy that selects server locations and service areas (what zones are first choice for each zone). Jarvis [1985] extends A-Hyprecube by including general call service times. This enables the modeling of systems where the call service times depend both on the serving vehicle and the demand zone. Validation studies on this model show that estimates of vehicle busy probabilities are extremely accurate (less than 5% error) when compared to busy probabilities of the actual system. Goldberg and Paz [1991] extend Jarvis' model by adding the objective of maximizing the expected number of calls covered (they estimate the probability that travel is less than the coverage time standard) and by embedding the new model in a location selection heuristic. The assumption of a fixed vehicle preference ordering for each zone remains.

Queueing Approaches

   Berman and Larson [1982] consider the situation where demand occurs according to a Poisson process, service is random and follows a general distribution that is independent of vehicle location. The model locates a set of vehicles to minimize total expected travel distance to serve all demands. The model considers the possibility that more preferred vehicles are busy and hence a less preferred vehicle must be sent and the possibility that the system is completely busy and call must queue or be sent to a system operating in parallel. The model is similar in spirit to the model proposed in Jarvis [1985]. Berman, Larson, and Parkan, [1987] decompose the model of Berman and Larson into a set of single vehicle problems. They then locate each server optimally. Information on shared workloads are passed between the single vehicle problems until the method converges to a stable solution. The goal is to minimize system travel and waiting time.

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MODELS THAT CONSIDER THE DYNAMIC REAL-TIME NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

   The models previously discussed in section 4 tend to be "single use" models. A user would solve the model for a single data set of demands, travel times, and service times, and obtain insight on good sets of locations for that data set. This is problematic in that the data is typically not stationary and has dramatic changes over the day, the week, and even the year.

   One approach for dealing with the dynamic nature of the problem is to break the week into 168 hourly periods and solve the model for each hour. Here, a user will have to integrate solutions so that the system runs smoothly and is not jumpy with vehicles changing locations repeatedly. Also, one can use the models and do pre-planning for atypical situations. For example, if 25% of the vehicles are busy, one could solve a model with 25% less capacity and see how the system should be designed. This solution can now be used to help in deciding how to re-deploy. So, the typical strategy for dealing with the dynamic nature is to use the static models and do a great deal of experimentation to pre-plan for contingent situations. Unfortunately, one cannot anticipate every possible situation and one must still figure out how to integrate and implement the solutions from the different model runs.

   There has been work in the OR literature on two dynamic problems; repositioning and dispatching. We close this section with a short discussion on each problem.

Dynamic Re-positioning

   For the short run problem (hours or real time), Repede and Bernardo [1994] extend Daskin's maximal expected covering model to allow different location sets at different times of the week. A set of constraints to limit the number of vehicles during each hour is also included to control costs. There is no constraint on how many times a vehicle may changes bases during a day. Amiri [2001] uses a similar approach when designing general service systems. The model also includes an objective that considers costs such as labor time, travel time, and the waiting time of calls. The decisions are the locations of the facilities and the available capacity at each open facility for the day, and the zones assigned to each open facility. Once a facility is opened and given capacity, then that capacity is fixed for the entire day. The zone assignments can vary with each hour. Gendreau, Laporte, and Semet, [2001], develop a model that considers the objective of maximizing double coverage of demand. The constraints include: the number of vehicles at each site, the moving of the same vehicle repeatedly, long travel trips, and round trips between two sites. The model has been used on data generated from the Montreal, Canada EMS system and is designed to be solved quickly in real time so that it can help with relocation decisions in real time. It is embedded in a software system that also considers dispatching as well as vehicle reassignment. This final work seems to be the only work on real-time repositioning decisions.

Dispatching

   The dispatching decision for EMS calls are generally quite simple in that the closest idle vehicle is usually dispatched to the call. There can be complications however and sometimes it may be better for the system if the second or more closest idle vehicle is sent. This event is most likely to occur when there are two (or more) vehicles that are approximately equal in travel time. Here, either vehicle can get to the call successfully, but there is little OR work done on dispatching of ambulances.

   Fire calls are often a different matter Chelst and Barlach [1981] consider the decision when multiple vehicles must be dispatched. The work uses the ideas in the Hypercube and A-Hypercube models and the major concern is estimating the time of the first responder on scene. Swersey [1982] develops a decision model to deciding how many fire companies to dispatch to a call. Ignall, Carter, and Rider [1982] develop a model for determining how many and which fire companies to dispatch in a high workload urban system. Minimizing immediate response time and minimizing future losses are the criteria in both the Swersey and Ignall papers. Cuninghame-Greene, and Harries [1988] show that using the closest idle vehicle dispatch rule is optimal when

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the criterion is minimizing average response time. Weintraub, et . al. [1999] present a model and application for assigning and routing repair vehicles for the Emergency Services Division of the electricity utility in Santiago, Chile. This system operates similarly to an EMS system in that it has random calls and various traffic patterns during the day. The key feature of real time routing is primarily of interest to EMS and FS operations managers.

APPLICATIONS AND SOFTWARE SYSTEMS

   There are numerous papers covering the actual application of planning and deployment models discussed in the previous sections. In this section, we include only those projects that are tied to specific cities or areas and papers that deal with strategies for implementation and have not been previously mentioned. We note that the usage of these models is international in scope and we have only sampled a subset of all of the actual applications.

   When performing a successful study, it is important to know where problems might occur. Hogg [1968] first discusses a methodology for performing studies, defines the key problems that must be modeled, and discusses the approach in Bristol County, England. Chaiken [1978] provides key lessons for implementing OR studies in FS and EMS cases. Chaiken collected data that showed the extensive usage of RAND models for EMS and FS planning. Hypercube was extensively distributed and used. Issues such as extensive and accurate model documentation, the presence of an advocate in the organization, and data requirements enhance the model's usability and re-usability. Alternatively, Baker and Byrd [1980] write that if the study must be done quickly, sophisticated models may not be the appropriate approach as they can take substantial time. We organize this section by general modeling approach; math programming, queuing and simulation, and non-traditional approaches that have not been previously discussed.

   Plane and Hendrick [1977] use maximal covering models to locate fire companies in Denver, CO. Schreuder [1981] uses mathematical programming to locate fire stations in Rotterdam. Eaton et. al. [1981], Eaton et. al. [1985], and Eaton et. al. [1986] use maximal covering models and the model of Daskin and Stern for locating ambulances in Columbia (South America), Austin, TX, and the Dominican Republic respectively. Badri, Mortagy, and Alsayed, [1998] describe a multi-criteria approach for locating fire stations in Dubai, UAE. The authors describe the entire solution process from setting the criteria to building a goal programming model, to assessing the current and suggested plans. Alsalloum and Rand [2003] use goal programming to model two criteria; cost as estimated by the number of vehicles, and the probability that a demand is actually covered. They use the approach in Riyadh Saudi Arabia and thoroughly discuss developing travel time models to estimate the probability that travel is within the coverage time limit.

   Savas [1969] describes a simulation model that was used in New York to locate ambulances. The model suggested that locating ambulances near demand areas, rather than near hospitals, would increase performance. Fitzsimmons and Srikar [1982] use a location search routine and a simulation model to find based locations in Austin, TX. Brandeau and Larson [1986] describe applying the Hypercube model to locate ambulances in Boston, MA. Fujiwara, Makjamroen, and Gupta [1987] use Daskin's expected covering model on data from Bangkok, Thailand. They first find good locations with the model and then further evaluate these candidates using a detailed simulation model. Goldberg et. al. [1990] use Jarvis' spatial queueing model with search heuristic to find improved base locations in Tucson, AZ. Repede and Bernardo [1994] and Repede, Jeffries, and Hubbard [1993] use an adjustment to Daskin's expected covering model within a user-friendly software system to locate emergency medical vehicles in Louisville, KY. This is one of the first efforts to consider the "time" dimension explicitly in their modeling efforts as they adjusted their model for different times of the day and developed different sets of locations. Morabito and Mendonca [2001] use the Hypercube model to consider the deployment of ambulances in Brazil.

   Carson and Batta [1990] use a scenario approach to locate a single vehicle on the Amherst Campus of the State University of New York at Buffalo. They consider 4 scenarios that model 4 periods during the day and try to find a location that minimizes area travel time for each scenario. McAleer and Naqvi [1994] use data analysis to help reduce area travel time in Belfast, Northern

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Ireland. Swersey, Goldring, and Geyer, [1993] build a cost model to analyze the issues in merging fire and emergency medical units in New Haven, CT.

   Two papers deserve mention even though they are not directly inline with the topic. Richard, Beguin and Peeters [1990] consider rural fire station location. This problem is different than urban location as the travel times are typically much longer. They consider three models for finding locations and one main result is that in these situations, having service equity can be expensive. Lane, Monefeldt, and Rosenhead, [2000] discuss a system dynamics model for a hospital emergency room. Even though this final model is not directly concerned with EMS and FS design and operation, the approach is an excellent example of model building and the system dynamics approach is applicable in many areas for medium and short term planning.

   There are now many companies that provide significant EMS and FS modeling and analysis services and software systems. These companies work in all phases of EMS and FS planning and decision making including site and equipment location, dispatching and transport, and record keeping.

   Isera uses its operations research scheduling technology to help model the vehicle loading problem and provide labor schedules for EMS and FS providers. Deccan International uses computer aided dispatch data to estimate necessary modeling parameters for their model - FIRE/ EMS ADAM. EMS and FS personnel can use a drag-and-drop graphical-user-interface to experiment with different system designs (different equipment locations for example). Results are presented in easy to understand graphs, maps, and tables. Queues Enforth Development developed a graphical user interface for the Hypercube model and a computer aided dispatch program in the mid to late 1980's. They have expanded their product line to include training and products tailored to police applications. The Trapeze Software Group specializes in software for vehicle scheduling, dispatching, and reporting. They integrate intelligent vehicle systems with dispatch decision making to make patient pick-up and delivery systems more efficient.

PREVIOUS REVIEW PAPERS

   We conclude this work with the numerous efforts at review papers in the OR literature. All of these are targeted towards the OR researcher and hence are mathematically more advanced than what we have presented here. The length of the list and the long time span again emphasize the importance of the problem and the richness of the potential application.

* Revelle, Marks, and Liebman, [1970] - considers private and public location models.

* Chaiken, and Larson, [1972] - reviews of all of the RAND reports and work in ES, EMS, and police.

* ReVelle, Bigman, Schilling, Cohon, and Church, [1979] - reviews all of the set covering and demand covering work of the 1970's. This paper is context free in that it simply talks of location as opposed to EMS or FS location.

* Ahituv and Berman [1988] - covers in detail a large part of the OR work on service systems from the 1970's and 1980's. Problem areas such as dispatching, repositioning, and base location are included. The text is geared towards the researcher and the practitioner. Results and applications are presented in the main chapters while appendices contain the detailed mathematical analyses.

* Brandeau and Chiu [1989] - covers all the models of the 1970's and 80's including the queueing work that came out of MIT. This paper is primarily for the OR researcher and contains a discussion of current open research problems.

* ReVelle [1989] - primarily covers the work from Johns Hopkins University on covering models including the probabilistic models and multiple coverage models of the late 1980's.

* Schilling, Jayaraman, and Barkhi, [1993] - contains a comprehensive review of all facility location problems that involve covering an area.

* Swersey [1994] - Comprehensive review in a handbook in operations research for public sector decision making. Spans police, FS, and EMS deployment.

* Marianov and Revelle [1995] - contains a broad general review of math programming models for siting EMS and FS bases. Includes probabilistic as well as deterministic models.

* Hesse-Owen, and Daskin [1998] - considers work relating to strategic decisions over an extended time horizon. This work covers some dynamic problems as well as probabilistic problems where some of the data is not known with certainty.

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* Brotcorne, Laporte, and Semet [2003] - considers past work in deterministic and probabilistic

covering models and optimization approaches. This paper has a special section on dynamic re

positioning of vehicles and this sets it apart from much of the other work.

DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

   Even though there has been a considerable amount of OR work applied in EMS and FS planning and operation, potentially fruitful areas for future research remain. As with the rest of the paper, the focus is on modeling approaches rather than model solution. It is clear that developing valid models with heuristic solution techniques is the correct approach rather than developing simplistic models with algorithms.

   The major area of needed work is the real-time operation of EMS and FS systems. The decisions involved in vehicle relocation and dispatch are complex and simulation and analytic modeling can be used to help consider the impact of such decisions. For example, using simulation, one could "fast-forward" in time and evaluate the impact of relocation or dispatching decisions for the next 30 minutes or an hour. It may be possible to build a generic simulator that would accept various data and operational strategies as input. The key constraint on such an approach is computational time as the decision must be make quickly in real-time. Another offshoot in this direction would be to build an "agent" that would look at system status and suggest relocation opportunities to the system manager. The agent could be running in background using the current system data as well as data from a traffic management system. Dispatching decisions would be automatically made along with any relocation needed.

   Another area in daily planning that has had almost no attention is shift scheduling. It is not difficult to estimate the required number of vehicles needed per hour, however one must staff those hours with vehicles and crews. The goal is to meet the needed service level at minimum total cost. The difficulty of the problem is that each city has its own shift length and starting times and these must be used when doing the scheduling. In some sense, a problem has to be solved that fits shifts into each day to meet demand and then crews must be assigned to each shift so that the labor scheduling policies are viable. There has been considerable OR mathematical programming work in airline crew scheduling and the EMS scheduling problem has some similar attributes. Isera has worked extensively in this area, however their work is proprietary.

   In the area of planning, there is little modeling work done in the design of ALS/BLS systems with the true cooperation and dispatching policy between the different types of vehicles. The mathematical programming work in this area has problems in that the dispatch policy of "send a BLS if an ALS is busy or further away" is not modeled since the busy and idle states of each vehicle are not modeled. This is difficult to do with analytical queuing models as well. Since computing power has increased significantly since 1974, it might be interesting to extend the ideas in Hypercube and A-Hypercube to the multi-vehicle type case as these might be

computationally feasible.

   The final area is data collection and modeling. If you cannot obtain data to run in the model, then there is little need for the model! Little work has been done on long term demand forecasting and hence long term capital investment models have little value. Most models use deterministic data or the average of a sample since there are few good estimating procedures to obtain distributions. Accurate travel and service time estimates are critical for building valid detailed models, but little OR work has been done in this area. Either this work must be brought from other areas (such as transportation engineering), or it has to be developed.

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EMS Management Journal 39 January - March, 2004


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